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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 



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REVI SED AND ENLARGED. 



Practical English Grammar 



MADE EASY. 



FOR THE USE OF 



Business Colleges, Private and Public Schools 
and Private Students. 



A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR, CONTAINING THE ANALYSIS OF MANY 
SENTENCES NOT GIVEN IN OTHER WORKS, ALSO A VALUABLE 
COLLECTION OF THE OPINIONS OF DIFFERENT STAND- 
ARD AUTHORS REGARDING DIFFICULT SEN- v 
TENCES, WORDS, AND EXPRESSIONS. 



St. Louis: 
Nixon-Jones Printing Company. 




6l>k0\ 



^.£\V\\ 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1893, by 

C. W. ROBBINS, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE. 



It is the aim of this revision to simplify the 
subject of English Grammar as much as possible 
by omitting expressions and technicalities, that in 
the judgment of the author are not necessary to 
a clear understanding of the proper use of the 
English language. 

Many excellent works on this subject are now 
published, but the time required in which to get 
a thorough knowledge of them, seems to be so 
long that the average pupil finds himself lost in a 
cloud of definitions and, to him, almost meaning- 
less expressions, and, after completing the subject 
in school, he often makes more mistakes than he 
did before studying grammar. Indeed this sub- 
ject seems so hard to gain a practical knowledge 
of, that men of culture and ability have contended 
that it did as much harm in our schools as it 
did good. 

The thoughtful teacher and student will find in 
this work many sentences, both easy and difficult, 
analyzed and explained, also many sentences and 



PREFACE. 



expressions that other authors have been silent 
on, fully discussed; also the opinions of standard 
authors are given on points on which authorities 
seem to differ, that the teacher and student may 
find it a valuable book of reference, as well as a 
time and labor-saving text-book for school or 
private use. 

Many exercises are given that will require the 
pupil to bring into use the various forms of the 
different parts of speech, thus giving him a knowl- 
edge of the use of the English language, as well 
as a knowledge of its theory. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the science which teaches us 
how to speak and write the English Language accord- 
ing to that usage established by our best writers and 
speakers. 

A Sentence is a group of words making complete 
sense. 

The principal parts of a sentence are the Subject and 
the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is said: as, 
Theses bloom. Prof. J. M. Greenwood is the efficient 
Superintendent of the Public Schools of Kansas City, 
Mo. The trees look beautiful. Jefferson and Adams 
died on the same day. The Science of grammar is quite 
difficult. How strange are his ways! 

The Predicate is that which is said of the subject: as, 
The lilies bloom. Jefferson and Adams died on the same 
day. He built a handsome brick house. You can buy 
a lead pencil for a nickel. Words give wings to thoughts. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. Horses run. 
("Horses 
I run 
This is a sentence in which " horses" is the subject 
and " run " is the predicate. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. Boys play. 9. Ice melts. 

3. Birds fly. 10. Men sin. 

4. Frogs jump. 11. Wheels turn. 

5. Children study. 12. Armies march, 

6. People talk. 13. Parrots talk. 

7. Dogs growl. 14. Stars shine. 

8. Trees grow. 15. Rain falls. 



16. Boys laugh. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

A noun or pronoun may be used as the subject of a 
sentence. 

A Noun is a name : as, Lillie, boy, Sedalia, and 
fence. 

A Proper Noun is a particular name; as, Charles, 
Quincy, and Sallie. All others are common nouns. 

A Pronoun is a word which stands for a noun; as, 
I, you, it, he, she, and who. 

SINGULAR PRONOUNS. 

Subjective Forms, I, you, it, he, she, who. 
Possessive " My, your, its, his, her, whose. 
Objective " Me, you, it, him, her, whom. 

PLURAL PRONOUNS. 

Subjective Forms, We, you, they, who. 
Possessive " Our, your, their, whose. 
Objective " Us, you, them, whom. 

Singular Pronouns represent but one. Plural Pro- 
nouns represent more than one. 

When a pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence, 
it should alwavs have the subjective form. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, correcting those that 
need it : 

1. Her came. 

f Her (She) 

Lcame. 
" Her " is a pronoun the subject of the verb " came ; " 
therefore it should have the subjective form, " she," in- 
stead of the objective form, her. "Came" is the 
predicate. 

2. They ran. 3. Him went. 4. It sings. 5. Them 
talk. 6. Us walk. 7. Who staid? 8. She plays. 

The Predicates of the preceding sentences are Verbs. 

A VERB 

Is a word used with a subject to form a statement, a 
question or a command.* 

The following words are Verbs : 

Are, run, walk, go, and play. 



EXERCISES. 



Find the Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs in the follow- 
ing sentences, and arrange according to model : 

1. We walked slowly by his house, and saw the beau- 
tiful trees around it. 



Nouns. 


Pronouns. 


Verbs. 


house 
trees 


We 
his 

it 


walked 
saw 



* A verb is used to express action, being or state; as, 
He writes; I am; the book lies on the table. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. Cranberries grow in this marsh. 

3. The city stood on a hill. 

4. Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. 

5. Jacob loved all his sons, but he loved Joseph the 
best. 

6. There is often more happiness in the cottage of 
the peasant than in the palace of the king. 

7. Where did you see him? 

8. I think I saw her and him this morning. 

9. I think that is his book. 

10. The matin songs of the birds fill the air with music. 

11. The trees look beautiful this spring. 

12. My head feels heavy to-night. 

13. He broke our jar. 

14. We saw his house. 

15. Great men inspire us. 

16. The boy gave his sister an apple and a pear. 

17. We saw your friends yesterday. 

Sentences Containing Modifiers. 

To Modify means to change or limit. 
A Modifier is one or more words used to change or 
affect the meaning of another word or words. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary : 

1. The black horse ran swiftlv. 

f u 5 The 

horse < 



black 
l^ran | swiftly. 
This is a sentence, in which "horse " is the subject, 
and " ran " is the predicate. The subject " horse " is 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9 



modified by " the " and " black," the predicate " ran," 
is modified by " swiftly." 

2. The man labors. 

3. Us go slowly. 

4. Some fowls swim. 

5. Green trees grow. 

6. Large, heavy bodies move slowly. 

7. The old oak grew rapidly. 

8. Him swam nicely. 

9. Small children sleep soundly. 

10. The old man walked away very rapidly. 

c The 
man < ,-. 
I old 

. c away 
walked < . „ , 

I rapidly | very 

11. He read quite slowly. 

12. The man spoke very eloquently. 

13. John walks very swiftly. 

14. The gray horse walks slowly. 

15. That tall slim boy walks sprightly. 

16. The mocking bird sings sweetly. 

17. The big round green ball rolls very slowly. 

18. The boy rises quite early. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five common nouns. 2. Write five proper 
nouns. 3. Write five singular pronouns. 4. Write five 
plural pronouns. 5. Write five sentences containing 
modifiers, and underscore the modifiers. 6. Write a 
sentence containing a noun, a pronoun, and a verb. 7. 
Write ten words that are generally used as modifying 
words. 

Verbs are of two kinds, complete and incomplete. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Complete Verbs make complete sense without the use 
of other words. 

Incomplete Verbs do not make complete sense with- 
out the use of other words. 



Incomplete Verbs Completed by Objects. 

The Object is that which receives the act performed 
by the subject and expressed by the verb. 

When a pronoun is used as the object of an incom- 
plete verb, it should have the objective form. 

EXERCISES. 

Write ten sentences containing incomplete verbs 
completed by objects. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary : 

1. William struck he. 

fW T illiam 

I struck | he (him). 
This is a sentence in which " William " is the subject; 
" struck" is the predicate. " He " is a pronoun used 
as the object; therefore it should have the objective 
form, him. 

2. Fulton invented the steamboat. 

3. Harry saw the sun. 

4. Children study grammar. 

5. We saw him. 

6. Lillie saw you. 

7. He caught the horse. 

8. Whom has my knife? 

9. Sallie took the pencil. 
10. Allie hid the book. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



11 



11. 


Mr. 


Brown knows us. 


12. 


Mr. 


Wills and Mr. Thomas savy you and Mamie 








' Mr. Wills 








(and) 








Mr. Thomas 



saw 



13 



you 
(and) 
Mamie. 
II mi and me saw Miss Archer. 

14. James saw you and he. 

15. We saw Floy and Lydia. 

1(5. Edgar and Howard know them. 

17. Mr. Crawford and I caught a nice fish. 

18. The old man slowly saws the green wood, 



i 



man 



5 The 
( old 



C slo 

saws < 

) wo 



slowly 

* ; the 
/ wood < 
^ C c green 

111. He wrote a nice letter. 

20. That wealthy banker built a fine residence. 

21. The Czar has a large army. 

22. John wrote a long letter. 

23. Mr. Williams found a new pocketknife. 

24. Alice studied her lesson. 

25. Whom broke that new slate? 
2(>. Him and me got the new rope. 



Incomplete Verbs Completed by Attributes. 

An Attribute completes the meaning of the verb by 
describing or explaining the subject. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary: 

I. Horses are animals. 

f Horses 

I are — animals 

In this sentence " horses" is the subject, "are" is the 
predicate, and " animals " is the attribute. 

Attributes may be Nouns, Pronouns, or Adjectives. 

When the attribute is a noun or a pronoun, the attri- 
bute explains the subject. When the attribute is an 
adjective, the attribute describes the subject. 

The verbs which most frequently take Attributes, are: 
am, is, was, are, and were. 

If a pronoun is used as an attribute after any of the 
above named verbs, it should have the subjective form. 

The Infinitive forms of these verbs, however, take 
Objective forms of the pronoun when the subject of the 
infinitive is in the objective case. 

2. Mary is queen. 

3. Peaches are good. 

4. Vinegar is sour. 

5. The man is honest. 

6. It was them. 

7. The earth is round. 

8. It was him. 

9. Byron was a poet. 
10. Vice is a monster. 

II. It was us. 

12. The horse is a beautiful animal. 

13. It was her and me. 

14. The box is square. 

15. The animals are very wild. 

16. He is sick. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

17. He is a nice man. 

18. Steel is very hard. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five verbs which usually take attributes. 2. 
Write five sentences containing attributes used to explain 
the subject. 3. Write five sentences containing attributes 
used to describe the subject. 4. Write sentences con- 
taining the following words used as attributes : he, she, 
we, you, they, and I. 5. Write ten sentences containing 
complete verbs. 6. Write five sentences containing in- 
incomplete verbs completed by attributes. 7. Write five 
sentences containing incomplete verbs completed by 
objects. 

Verbs Composed of more than one Word. 

Verbs are sometimes composed of two, three, or more 
words; as, The castle had been stormed, 
f castle | The 
I had been stormed. 
In this sentence " castle" is the subject, and " had 
been stormed " is the predicate. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary : 

1. The little children were playing. 

2. James is running. 

3. You must go. 

4. Have you called he? 

5. Us can go. 

6. The house was blown away. 

7. They have gone. 

8. The tree may have fallen. 

9. James was discouraged. 



14 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



10. Who did you see? 

11. Who do you want? 

12. Did you see he? 

13. He did not go. 



EXERCISES. 

Find the nouns and verbs in the following sentences, 
and arrange according to model : 

1. John made the box and went away ; but May 
stayed with us until the storm had ceased. 



Nouns. 


Verbs. 


Proper. 


Common, 
box 

storm 


Complete, 
went 
stayed 
had ceased 


Incomplete. 


John 

May 


made 



2. He must have gone before you arrived. 

3. It was we that you saw. 

4. Maggie and Allie study grammar. 

5. Mr. Davis attended school during the winter of 
1890. 

6. The candy is too sweet. 

7. We silently gazed on the face of the dead. 

8. Industry is the road to wealth. 

9. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

10. The borrower is a servant to the lender. 

11. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

12. No work is a disgrace; the true disgrace is 
idleness. 

13. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

14. The dark smoke rises in the air from the tall 
chimney. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 



AN ADJECTIVE 

Is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 

The following words are adjectives: good, wise, the, 
that, and three. 

Care sfwuld be taken not to use adverbs as adjectives. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary : 

1. All badly men will be punished. 

f 5 a11 

men < 

2 badly (bad) 
[will be punished 
In the above sentence " man " is the subject; " will 
be punished " is the predicate; " badly " is used as an 
adjective and modifies " man," therefore should be bad 
instead of " badly." 

2. All men are mortal. 

3. Many wise men have written books. 

4. Dry wood burns readily. 

5. Mary is a good girl. 

6. Henry wrote a nicely letter. 

7. Lazy pupils have poor lessons. 

8. The beautiful black horses ran very rapidly. 

9. The girls have three sweet apples. 

Note. — The pupil should notice that such words as 
neatly, safely, badly, sweetly, and gayly are adverbs, and 
they should not be used for their adjective forms neat, 
safe, bad, sweet and gay. 

10. Ifeelbadlv. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. The rose smells sweetly. 

12. The city looks gaylv. 

13. She looks neatly. 

14. This board feels smoothly. 

15. The boys arrived safely. 

16. This apple tastes sweetly. 

17. The children feel finely. 

18. The young lady looks prettily. 



AN ADVERB 

Is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb. 

The following words are adverbs : very, wisely, sweetly, 
and swiftly. 

Care should be taken not to use adjectives as adverbs. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary: 

1. She dresses neat. 

She 



^dresses | neat (neatly) 



modify the predicate, " dresses;" therefore it should be 
neatly. 

2. He fell suddenly. 

3. Our pupils write nice. 

4. The ships sail slow. 

5. The small man ran swift. 

6. Are you not mistaken? ' 

7. The birds sing sweetly. 

8. He came quick. 

9. Him and me did not have it. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



17 



EXERCISES. 

Find the nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs 
in the following sentences, and arrange according to 
model : 

1. We silently gazed on the face of the dead. 
As we bitterly thought of the morrow. 



Nouns. 


Pronouns. 


Verbs. 


Adj. 


Adv. 

silently 
bitterly 


face 
dead 
morrow 


We 

we 


gazed 
thought 


the 
the 
the 



2. The morning stars sung together, and all the sons 
of God shouted for joy. 

3. He was a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skillful 
gardener, an excellent cook, and a most contemptible 
sovereign. 

4. Some persons are happy while others are miser- 
able. 

5. The relations between man and man cease not 
with life. 

6. The dead leave behind them their memory, their 
example, and the effects of their actions. 

7. The world, with its thousand interests and occupa- 
tions, is a great school. 

8. The Golden Rule contains the very life and soul 
of politeness. 

9. The oceans, the mountains, the clouds, the heav- 
ens, the stars, the rising and setting sun, all overflow with 
beauty. 

10. The woods, the wilds, and the waters respond to 
savage intelligence. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A PREPOSITION 

Is a word used to connect words and show the relation 
between them. 

Prepositions taken with their objects are used as 
modifiers. 

The following words are used as prepositions : of, by, 
over, for, with, at, in, and from. 

A Pronoun used as the object of a preposition should 
have the objective form. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary: 

1. William rode from town. 

r William 

^ rode | from town 
In the above sentence " William " is the subject, and 
" rode " is the predicate. The predicate is modified by 
" from town." " From " is a preposition, having 
" town " for its object. 

2. James went to town. 

3. The man came from France. 

4. The house stands on the hill. 

5. John lives in the city. 

6. They went with me. 

7. The boys jumped from the fence. 

8. I went by he. 

9. She is loved by all. 

10. The ducks flew from the pond. 

11. He ran over the carpet. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

12. The boy fell over a chair into a tub of water. 
( boy | The 

I c ,, f over chair I a 

I i r a 

I into tub \ 

( or water. 

13. With who did you come? 

fyou 

[did come | With who (whom) 
In the twelfth and thirteenth sentences " over, into, 
of, and with]" are prepositions, having the words fol- 
lowing them for their objects. 

14. Who did you speak to? 

15. By who was he struck? 

16. With who did he live? 

17. For who did you ask? 

18. The man with the gray coat fell from the top of 
the wall. 

19. With patience you may succeed. 

20. Will you go with me into the garden? 



EXERCISES. 

1. Write ten words commonly used as adjectives. 2. 
Write ten words commonly used as adverbs. 3. Write 
ten words commonly used as prepositions. 4. Write 
sentences containing the following verbs used with ad- 
jective attributes: feel, looks, smells, seems, appears. 
5. Write five sentences containing adjectives, and under- 
score the adjectives. 6. Write five sentences containing 
adverbs, and underscore the adverbs. 7. Write five 
sentences containing prepositions, and underscore the 
prepositions. 8. Write sentences containing the follow- 
ing words used as objects of prepositions: whom, me, 
him, her, and it. 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUNCTIONS 

Connect words and sentences. 

Such words as and, hat, or, and if are conjunctions. 



EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary : 

1. George may go, but you and me must stay. 
f George 
L may go 

(but) 

you 

(and) 

me (I) 

must stay 

The above is two sentences, connected by the con- 
junction " but." In the second sentence, " you and me " 
is used as the subject, therefore, " me " should have the 
subjective form, I. 

2. John Jones sells books, and Henry Smith plows 
corn. 

3. Gertie studies music, and James practices penman- 
ship. 

4. Mr. Park went with I, and Mr. Chancellor went 
with Mr. Williams. 

5. You keep company with good men and you will 
increase the number. 

6. Charles went to town, but Emma stayed at home. 

7. Mr. Harness lives at Montrose, and Mr. Bosier 
lives at Fayette. 



ENGLISPI GRAMMAR. 21 

8. Csesar was a general, and Columbus was a dis- 
coverer. 

9 . Him and John came to school , and I stayed at home. 

10. They went to town with he and she, but they did 
not find the doctor. 

11. Maggie wrote a letter, and Allie studied her 
grammar. 

12. Talent is something, but tact is everything. 

13. Mr. Smith edits a paper and Dr. Hunter practices 
medicine. 

INTERJECTIONS 

Are independent words; they have no grammatical con- 
nection with any other words. Such words as, Hurrah , 
O, O, Alas, Ah, and Pshaw, are interjections. 

In analyzing sentences which contain interjections 
the pupil will observe that interjections do not modify 
any of the words in the sentence, nor are they modified 
by any of the words of the sentence. 

For example, " Pshaw ! I do not care." 

In this sentence, " I " is the subject, " do care " is 
the predicate, and " not " is an adverb modifying " do 
care." "Pshaw" is an interjection and is not related 
to any of the other words grammatically. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The words of our language are, according to use, 
divided into eight classes called parts of speech. 

They are the noun, the pronoun, the verb, the adjective. 
the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the 
interjection. 

These " parts of speech" properly combined make up 
the phrases, clauses, and sentences of which our language 
is composed. 



22 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



We have learned that a Sentence is a group of words 
including a subject and a predicate, and making complete 
sense; as, The man runs swiftly. 

A Clause is a group of words including a subject and 
a predicate, but not making complete sense; as, I know 
now why you deceived me. 

A Phrase is a group of words having a meaning, but 
not including a subject and a predicate; as, He is the 
king of Persia. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five words commonly used as conjunctions. 
2. Write five words commonly used as interjections. 3. 
Write a sentence containing two words connected by a 
conjunction. 4. Write two sentences connected by a 
conjunction. 5. Write five sentences that contain no 
clauses. 6. Write five sentences containing clauses, and 
underscore the clauses. 7. Write five sentences contain- 
ing phrases, and underscore the phrases. 



EXERCISES. 

Find the parts of speech in the following sentences, 
and arrange according to model : 

1. Maud Muller on a summer's day 
Raked the meadow sweet with hay. 
Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 



Nouns. 


Pron. 


Verbs, 
raked 


Adj. 
a 


Adv. 


Prep. 


Conj. 


Inter j. 


Maud Muller 


her 


on 


and 


summer's 




glowed 


the 




with 






day 






sweet 




beneath 






meadow 






torn 




of 






hay 






the 










hat 






simple 










wealth 






rustic 










beauty 
















health 















ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 23 

2. Charles gave a ripe peach to the sick woman. 

3. Hamilton smote the rock of national resources, 
and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. 

4. Put not your trust in money, but put your money 
in trust. 

5. We Americans are all cuckoos, for we build our 
homes in the nests of other birds. 

6. Who gave you those beautiful flowers? 

7. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world 
ever saw. 

8. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic 
to the Chinese Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian 
Sea to those of the Indian Ocean. 

9. Tell me not in mournful numbers. 
Life is but an empty dream. 

10. I bring fresh showers for the thirsty flowers, 
From the sea and the stream. 

11. Honor and shame from no condition rise; 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 

12. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my child- 

hood. 

13. Poor wanderers of a stormy day, 
From wave to wave we're driven. 

14. There brighter suns dispense serener light, 
And milder moons imparadise the night. 

15. 'Tis midnight's holy hour, and silence now 
Is brooding like a gentle spirit o'er 

The still and pulseless world. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN* 

Is a word used as a conjunction and a pronoun at the 
same time. 

The following words are used as conjunctive pronouns: 
who, whose, whom, which, that^ and sometimes as. 

The conjunctive pronoun stands for some preceding 
noun or pronoun, and also performs the office of a con- 
junction by connecting the clause to the word for which 
the pronoun stands. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary: 

1. The man who sells berries is at the door, 
f The 

man < { who 

y |^ sells | berries 

^is | at door | the 
In the above sentence " who " is a conjunctive pro- 
noun, the subject of the verb sells, and connects the 
clause " who sells berries " to " man." 

2. It was I that saw you. 

[ It { that 

^ was — I ^ saw | you 

3. Mr. Smith whom is a lawyer wrote the deed. 



* A conjunctive pronoun and a relative pronoun are one 
and the same thing. The pupil may use either term. 
We have chosen the term "conjunctive pronoun" on 
account of its apparent adaptability to the office which 
performs. The term " relative pronoun," the word 
however, is the one more frequently employed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 



4. He who studies will excel. 

5. It was me that took your book. 

6. It is her that plays the organ. 

7. The man who committed the act went away. 

8. They who forsake the law praise the wicked. 

9. The man who sung the song is a physician. 

10. The doctor who cured him lives in Sedalia. 

11. The clerk who copied the deed wrote rapidly. 

12. The man who you saw lives in the city. 

C The 
f man j f you 

' (^ saw | who (whom) 
L lives | in city | the 
In the above sentence " man " is the subject, and 
''lives" is the predicate. The subject is modified by 
" the" an adjective, and by the clause "who you saw," 
of which " you " is the subject, " saw " is the predicate, 
and " who " is a conjunctive pronoun, used as the ob- 
ject of the verb "saw;" therefore it should have the 
objective form, idiom. The predicate is modified by the 
phrase " in the city." " In " is a preposition, having 
" city," a noun, for its object. City is modified by 
" the," an adjective. 

13. The bird which was crippled died. 

14. The man who you saw is our President. 

15. The house which stands on the hill belongs to me. 

16. The paper which contained the notice was the 
Democrat. 

17. He is a man who I like. 

18. The dog which you struck ran away. 

19. It was a horse that you saw. 

20. The man with who I went has returned. 

21. He that cannot ride should not keep a horse. 

22. The girls who sent the apples will never forget it. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. A man who is wise will avoid evil. 

24. The greatest man is he who chooses the right 
with invincible resolution. 

EXERCISE. 

Write and diagram six sentences containing conjunc- 
tive pronouns. 

A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB 
Is a conjunction and an adverb united in one word. 

Some words frequently used in this manner are: when, 
while, where, and as. 

A Conjunctive Adverb modifies the verb in the clause 
and connects the clause to the verb in the main part of 
the sentence. 

EXERCISES. 

Analjze the following sentences, making corrections, 
when necessary : 

1. John ran when Henry left. 
f John 

f Henry 
ran J ' / 

L left I WHEN 

In the above sentence "John" is the subject and 
" ran " is the predicate. The predicate, " ran," is modi- 
fied by the clause " when Henry left, "in which " Henry " 
is the subject and "left " is the predicate. " When" 
is a conjunctive adverb modifying " left," and connect- 
ing the clause " when Henry left " to " ran." 

2. Bats fly when it is dark. 

3. Water freezes when it is cold. 

4. We live where apples grow. 

5. I shall go when he arrives. 

(). He defends himself when he is attacked. 
7. Flowers bloom when spring returns. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



27 



8. You do as I do. 

9. The people were astonished when they heard her 
voice. 

EXERCISE. 

Write and diagram six sentences containing conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

CLAUSES 

May be used as subjects, attributes, or objects. 
Do right is a good rule. 

f[you] 

I Do | right 

i fa 
is — rule 

I I good 

In the above sentence " Do " is a verb, having its 
subject understood. " "You do right " is a clause used as 
the subject of the verb "is ; " " rule " is the attribute 
of "is," and is modified by " a" and "good," adjec- 
tives. "Right" is a noun used as the object, of the 
verb " do." 

His last words were, " Remember me." 
C His 
i last 



words 



were L v -■ 

(^Remember | me. 

" You remember me" is a clause used as the attribute 

of the verb " were." 

I hope you may never be sick. 

I 

hope 



you 

may be — sick 



never 



The clause " you may never be sick " is the object of 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the verb " hope." " May be " is modified by " never," 
an adverb. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write and diagram five sentences containing a 
clause used as the subject. 2. Write and diagram six 
sentences containing a clause used as the attribute. 3. 
Write and diagram six sentences containing a clause used 
as the object. 4. Write a sentence containing the pro- 
noun " myself " correctly used. 5. Write a sentence 
containing the pronoun " themselves " correctly used. 



AN EXPLETIVE 

Is a word used to introduce a sentence or a clause 
without having any particular relation to it, 

It, that, and there are frequently used as expletives. 
That the way is difficult is evident. 
f(That) 
j way | the 
l^ is — 'difficult' 
is — evident. 

In the above sentence "the way is difficult " is a 
clause used as the subject, and " is " is the predicate. 
"Evident" is the attribute of the verb "is." In the 
clause " way " is the subject; "is" is the predicate, 
and " difficult" is the attribute. " Way" is modified 
by " the," an adjective. " That " is an expletive. 
My wish is that you may be liappy. 
wish | My 

f (that) 
is— | you 

l^may be — happy. 
Wish " is the subject of the above sentence ; " is " 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 



is the predicate, and " that you may be happy" is a 
clause used as the attribute. " That " is an expletive. 
" You " is the subject of the verb " may be," and 
" happy " is an attribute. 

There are men who think that labor is disgraceful. 
"(There) 

C who 
men I "™" ( (that) 
I think I labor 

1^ is — disgraceful, 
are 

In this sentence " men " is the subject and " are " is 
the predicate. " Men " is modified by " who think that 
labor is disgraceful." " Who " is a conjunctive pro- 
noun the subject of the verb " think." " That labor is 
disgraceful " is a clause used as the object of " think." 

" Labor" is the subject of " is," and " disgraceful" 
is an attribute. " There "and "that" are expletives. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. His wish is that we should come early. 

2. He said that the work was already completed. 

3. That the cause was just has been proven. 

4. We believe that all bodies occupy space. 

5. There was much grass there. 

6. Gallileo taught that the earth revolves. 

7. I know who did it. 

S. I heard she went away. 

9. I learned who sent the apples. 

10. He said that we could not go. 

11. I think that it will rain. 

12. I know why you did it. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SENTENCES 
Are Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

A Simple Sentence is one that consists of one inde- 
pendent statement, question, or command ; as, Henry 
went to town. What do you want? James and Anna 
will go to the country. 

* A Complex Sentence is one containing one or more 
than one clause ; as, He is the man whom you saw. 
They sung while he danced. 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple 
or complex sentences of equal rank; as, John went to 
see the lawyer, and James went to see his brother ; 

Mary left while John was gone, and Leona returned 
while Lydia was here. 

They who were first shall be last, and they who were 
last shall be first. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write three simple sentences. 2. Write three com- 
plex sentences, each containing two clauses. 3. Write 
three compound sentences, each containing three asser- 
tions. 4, Write two compound sentences, omitting the 
connectives. 5. Write two complex sentences, each con- 
taining three clauses. 6. Write a complex sentence con- 
taining a clause used as the subject. 7. Write a complex 
sentence containing a clause used as the object. 8. 
Write a complex sentence containing a clause used as the 
attribute. 9. Write a complex sentence containing a 



* Note. A clause is the constituent element of a com- 
plex sentence, and whenever you have a clause in a sen- 
tence you have a complex sentence, it matters not whether 
the clause is used as the subject, object, attribute, or as 
a modifier. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

clause used as a modifier. 10. Write two compound 
sentences, each composed of two complex sentences. 

APPOSITIVES. 

* When a noun or pronoun is used to explain the meaning 
of a preceding noun or pronoun, it is called an appositive. 

The Appositive refers to the same person or thing as 
the noun or pronoun which is explained by it. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Milton the poet was blind. 

poet | the 
{ Milton 
(^ was — blind 
This is a sentence in which " Milton " is the subject ; 
" was " is the predicate, and " blind " is the attribute. 
" Poet" is in apposition with Milton, and is modified by 
" the," an adjective. 

2. St. Paul the Apostle was in the reign of Nero. 

3. Mr. Jones the lawyer is a fine writer. 

4. The skull, or cranium, protects the brain. 

5. Mr. Smith the doctor is related to Mr. Brown the 
blacksmith. 

6. My son Joseph has entered college. 

7. I saw your brother, him who is a doctor. 

8. Have you seen Victoria the Queen? 

9. Brooklyn, a city in the United States, is noted for 
its churches. 

10. He himself could not go. 
Write and diagram five sentences containing appositives. 



* Nouns or pronouns used after verbs not taking ob- 
jects meaning the same thing as the subject, are used as 
attributes and not as appositives. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE INFINITIVE 

Is a form of the verb which may be used as a noun, 
an adjective, or an adverb. It may generally be known 
by " to " placed before it. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences containing infini- 
tives : 

To love is to obey. 
{ To love 
(^ is — to obey. 
In the above sentence " to love " is an infinitive used 
as the subject; " is " is the predicate and " to obey " is 
an infinitive used as the attribute. 
To be good is to enjoy life. 
To be — good 
is — to enjoy | life 
In this sentence " to be good " is the subject, " is" 
is the predicate, and "to enjoy life" is the attribute ; 
"good" is an adjective used as an attribute after the 
infinitive " to be, "and " life " is a noun used as the object 
of the infinitive " to enjoy." 
They wish to go to the city. 
fThey 

[ wish | to go | to city | the 
In the above sentence " they " is the subject; " wish " 
is the predicate. 

" To go to the city " is the object of wish. "To go " 
is an infinitive, modified by " to the city; " " to " is a 
preposition having " city, "a noun, for its object; " the " 
is an adjective modifying" city." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

To destroy a man's prospects is to blight a man's hopes. 

To destroy j prospects < 

C man's 

is — to blight I hopes < 

S ' l I man's 

In the above sentence " to destroy a man's prospects " 

is the subject; " is " is the predicate, and "to blight a 

man's hopes " is the attribute. " To destroy " is an 

infinitive, having is prospects" for its object, and 

" hopes" is the object of the infinitive " to blight." 

1. Children love to play. 

2. To err is human, to forgive is divine. 

3. To be industrious is to be successful. 

4. To write nicely is a useful accomplishment. 

5. We came to recite our lesson. 

6. The boys stopped to play by the way. 

7. The child was afraid to go alone. 

8. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

9. We desire to be loved by our friends. 

10. To save is to earn. 

11. To run' is cowardly. 

12. He returned to make an apology. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write three sentences containing an infinitive used 
as the subject. 2. Write three sentences containing an 
infinitive used as the attribute. 3. Write three sentences 
containing an infinitive used as a modifier. 4. Write 
three sentences using infinitive phrases to modify the 
predicates. 5. Write three sentences using prepositional 
phrases to modify the subjects. 6. Write three sentences 
using prepositional phrases to modify the predicates. 
7. Write two sentences using clauses to modify the 
subjects. 8. Write three sentences using clauses to 

3 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

modify the objects. 9. Write two sentences using 
clauses to modify the objects of prepositions. 10. 
Write three compound sentences, and contract them into 
equivalent complex sentences. 11. Write two simple 
sentences each containing two subjects and expand them 
into equivalent compound sentences. 12. W r rite two 
complex sentences, and contract the clauses into equiva- 
lent infinitive phrases. 

A PARTICIPLE 

Is a variation of the verb, which may be used as an 
adjective or a noun. 

When a participle is used as a noun it may be modified 
as either a noun or a verb or as both at the same time. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences containing participles : 
A man resting by the roadside found a purse. 

\ A 

( resting | by roadside | the 

^ found | purse | a 
In the above sentence " man " is the subject, " found " 
is the predicate and " purse'" is the object; the object 
is modified by " a," an adjective; the subject is modified 
by " a," an adjective, and " resting by the roadside; ' 
"resting" is a participle modified by "by the road- 
side; " " by " is a preposition having " roadside " for its 
object ; " roadside " is modified by " the," an adjective. 
The good King betrayed by his enemies fled to his castle, 
f The 
fking^ good 

( betrayed | by enemies | his 
I fled | to castle | his 
In the above sentence " King " is the subject ; " fled " 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

is the predicate; "King" is modified by "the" and 
6i good," adjectives, also by "betrayed by his enemies." 
" By " is & preposition having «« enemies " for its object ; 
" enemies " is modified by " his ; " the predicate by " to 
his castle; " " to " is a preposition having " castle " for 
its object, " castle " is modified by " his." 

Being innocent of the crime, be firm and confident. 
( (you) | Being — innocent | of crime | the 
[be — firm and confident 
In the above sentence " you " understood is the sub- 
ject modified by *< being innocent of the crime," " be" 
is the predicate, " firm and confident," are adjectives used 
as the attribute. 

Reading fine print tires the eyes. 
( Reading | print | fine 
J tires 
[ eyes | the 
In the above sentence " reading " is a participal used 
as the subject, " print " is a noun used as the object of 
" reading," " fine " is an adjective modifying " print." 
" Tires " is the predicate ; " eyes " is a noun used as the 
object of theverb " tires;" " the " is an a djective modify- 
ing " eyes." 

Our going to the lecture will depend upon my father's 

giving his consent. 

. f Our 
coins' •< 
& & ( to lecture | the 

.,, t .. . . . f father's I my 

will depend upon giving J ■ / 

1 r & & { consent | his 

In the above sentence '« going " is a participle used as 
a noun, and is modified by " our " and " to the lecture." 
" My father's giving his consent" is the object of the 
preposition " upon." " Giving" is a participle used as 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



a noun, having " consent " for its object, and is modified 
by " father's," a possessive. 

Forsaken by all my friends, I took refuge in flight. 

all 



Forsaken I by friends < 

( refuo 
I in nil 



I 

' my 
^ refuge 
ight 



In the above sentence ''Forsaken by all my friends " 
; s a participial phrase modifying "I." 

1. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 

2. The vessel sailing on the bay has no captain. 

3. Hearing and seeing, I believed. 

4. He will be rewarded for studying his lesson. 

5. A tree overturned by the wind lay across our 
path. 

6. I often think of seeing him. 

7. Turning suddenly, I fell down. 

8. Seeing us, they went awa} r . 

9. Having money in my pocket, I was independent. 

10. Reading is a very important branch of knowledge. 

11. Being weary I sat down to rest. 

12. The corporal was shot for deserting his regiment. 

13. A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pict- 
ures of silver. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write four sentences using participles used as 
nouns. 2. Write five sentences in which the subject is 
modified by a participial phrase. 3. Write three sen- 
tences in which the participial phrase is used as the sub- 
ject. 4. Write four sentences in which the subjects are 
modified by appositives. 5. Write two sentences using 
participial phrases as objects of prepositions. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 

The pupil should study the following exercise care- 
fully, after which the teacher should require him to dia- 
gram them and give a thorough explanation of each: 

1. I speak as to wise men: judge ye what I say. 
l g l )eak L [would speak] {^ m6n|wiSe 

c I say | what 
" What " is a pronoun used as the object of the verb 

-say/' 



2. I took him to be a lawyer. 

i 

took | him | to be — lawyer | a 
In the above sentence " him to be a lawyer" is the 
object of "took." "Him" is modified by "to be," 
an infinitive. "Lawyer" is used as the attribute of 
" to be." 

3. Neither poverty nor riches is desirable. 

f poverty 

(Neither — nor) 

riches 
I is — desirable 

4. Wash your hands clean. 

f L You l r 

J I your 

Wash | hands { rj _ . -. , 
^ ! ( [to be] — clean. 

" Clean," in this sentence, is an adjective used as the 

attribute of " to be " understood, and modifies " hands." 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Another method : 
4. Wash your hands clean. 

r [You] 

|^ Wash | hands | your 
| + clean 

" Clean " by this method, is considered a factitive 
and refers to "hands." "Hands" is the object of 
" wash." Many of our best grammarians prefer to use 
the term "factitive." We, however, in disposing of 
words of this kind, have considered them as used as 
attribute compliments after "to be" understood. The 
pupil may dispose of them by either method he chooses. 

Note. A factitive completes the meaning of the verb, 
but refers to the object. 

The factitive may be a noun, a pronoun, or an ad- 
jective. 

If it is a noun or pronoun it is in the objective case. 

A cross is used to indicate the factitive and a horizon- 
tal bar is used to indicate the attribute. 

5. They elected him president. 
fThey 
L elected | him | [to be] — president. 

" President " is a noun in the objective case, after 
the infinitive "to be." The verb " to be " takes the 
same case after it as before it, when both words refer to 
and signify the same thing. " He " is used as the object 
of " elected." Some grammarians prefer to dispose of 
" him to be president " as the direct object of " elected," 
while others claim the sentence should be expanded thus, 
in making the analysis: " They elected him for him to 
be president." "President" may also be considered 
as a factitive used after " elected." If considered a 
factitive, it is in the objective case, as the factitive, when 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



39 



a noun or pronoun, is always in the same case as the 
object. 

6. Between Nose and Eyes a strange contest arose. 
The spectacles set them unhappily wrong; 
The point in dispute was, as all the world knows, 
To which the said spectacles ought to belong. 

J a 

f contest t strange 

{Nose 
(and) 
Eyes 
c spectacles | The 
l^set | them 

jwrong | unhappily 

spectacles J 

{ said 

^ ought | to belong | To which 



was 



- point 
world 



| 1 



\ in dispute 
all 
the 
knows | as 

"Which" is an adjective used as a noun, the object 
of the preposition "to." "Wrong" is an adjective 
used as a factitive after the verb " set " and refers to 
" them." 



7. Both Sallie and Clara have decided to go. 

^Sallie 

(Both— and) 

Clara 
_ have decided | to go 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



8. Better far 

Pursue a friviolous trade by serious means, 
Than a sublime art frivolously. 



[to] Pursue 



[is] better <J 



f a 

trade { ,. 



ivolous 



by means | serious 

f(than) 

[to pursue] 1 

\ frivolously 
[is — good] 



sublime 



I fat 



Note. Some conjunctions join things of equal rank 
together, while other conjunctions join things of unequal 
rank together. 

" Than " in the above sentence joins things of unequal 
rank together, hence the clause placed after " better" 
modifies it. 

The principal words used as conjunctions to join things 
of equal rank are: and, also, but, yet, nor, or, either, 
neither, still, and notwithstanding . 

The principal conjunctions that are used to join things 
of unequal rank together are: if, though, u?dess, except, 
that, for, as, than, because, and whether. 

9. He had a sound mind, a good judgment, and a 
lively imagination. 



fHe 



mind 
[and] 



a 
sound 



L had < judgment | ^ 

(and) 

... C a 
imagination < 

& d lively, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

10. He is worth more than you. 

fHe 

I. f(than) 

Lis | worth more y u 

"Worth" is a preposition, having "more " for its 
object. "More" is an adjective, here used as a noun. 

Another method: 

He 

[ (than) 
is — worth | [X] more | y OU 

[ [are — worth] 
"Worth" is here disposed of as an adjective, and 
" more " is the object of a preposition understood. 

11. The horse ran a mile. 

f horse | The 
Iran | [X] mile | a 
" Mile " is the object of a preposition understood. 
Note. Nouns denoting time, distance, quantity, quality, 
valuation etc., are more easily disposed of in a diagram 
by considering them objects of prepositions understood. 

12. The post is ten feet high. 

' post | The 
is — high | [x] feet | ten 

13. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of 
hope. 

to indulge I in illusion? \ 

e ' (of hope 

fit 

[is — natural | to man 
"To indulge in the illusions of hope" is a phrase 
used in apposition with "it." 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



14. Huzza! huzza! Long live Lord Robin, 

(Huzza) (huzza) 
f Lord Robin 
(_ live | Long 



15. He comes with a careless " How d'ye do? " 
And seats himself in my elbow-chair: 
And my morning paper and pamphlet new 

Fall forthwith under his special care, 
And he wipes his glasses and clears his throat, 
And, button by button, unfolds his coat. 

fHe f 

with How d'ye do < 



comes 
(And) 
Seats 



a 

careless 



(And) 
"paper 
(and) 



himself 

in elbow-chair 

"| | morning 



my 



pamphlet J ( new 
forthwith 
under care 



Fall 



his 
special 



glasses 



his 



(And) 
fhe 
wipes 
(and ) 

clears | throat | his 
(And) 
unfolds 



coat | his 

[with] button | by button 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



43 



16. Most men know what they hate, few what they 
love. 

f f men | Most 

.know y 

[ hate | what 

[but] 

r . [men] | few 

[know] y 

y love | what 

17. That book is theirs. 

{ book | That 

(^ is — [book] | their(s) 

18. He threw the stone almost over the river. 

He 

., f stone I the 

threw { '. , 

( over river | the 

| almost 
" Almost" is an adverb used to modify the preposi- 
tional phrase " over river." 

19. He had more money than he knew what to do 
with. 

fHe f(than; 

[had | money | more j he 

[ knew | to do | with what 

20. I went a fishing. 

r I 
went | a fishing 
In such sentences as this " a " is used as a preposition. 

21. He is more than pleased. 

fHe 

[is — pleased | more than 
" More than " is an adverbial phrase modifying 
44 pleased." 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



22. A depot is a place where stores are deposited, 
['depot | A 

I f a 

■1 (" stores 
^ is — place ( ^ are deposited | where 
" Where " is a conjunctive adverb modifying '* are 
deposited" and seems to connect the clause " where 
stores are deposited" to " place." 

" Where" as here used is equivalent to at ivhich. 

23. Thus many a sad to-morrow came and went. 

many a 
sad 



to-morrow 



| sa 



cam e ] 
(and) VThus 
went I 



not 



Such expressions as, " many a," " such a," and 
a " may be disposed of as adjective phrases. 

24. The house cost two thousand four hundred 
dollars. 

("house | The 

^ cost | [x] dollars | two thousand four hundred 
" Two thousand four hundred " is an adjective phrase 
modifying " dollars." 

25. But war's a game which, were their subjects wise, 
Kings would not play at. 

(But) 



fwar 
I 

LlS— ; 



Kinofs 



not 

at which 



would play ^j f L"J 

subjects | their 



( were — wise 
But " is an introductory conjunction. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

26. The more I see him, the better I like him. 

f 1 



like 



'"him 
better | the 

("him 
I see ^ more | The 

t[as_] 

We think the simplest way to dispose of such senten- 
ces as the above, is to consider a conjunctive adverb 
understood, hence in this sentence we have supplied 

"as." 



27. The shower having passed, we pursued our jour- 
ney. 

f we f journey 

pursued < , j The 

^ l ) shower J 

{ \ having passed 

"Shower" is here used independently before the 
participle " having passed." 

" The shower having passed " is an abridged expres- 
sion modifying pursued, and is equivalent to " when the 
shower had passed." 



28. King David, the enemy will overcome him. 

C enemy | the 

(^ will overcome | him 

King David 

"King David" is here used independently by 
pleonasm. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

29. Let me 2:0. 

f [you] 

|^ Let I me | [to] go. 
Note. The sign " to " of the infinitive is omitted 
after the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
please, see, and some others of similar meaning. It must 
be supplied in analyzing. 

30. They are such as I could find. 

fThey 

are — such 
^ I could find J as 

In this sentence " as " is a conjunctive pronoun used 
as the object of " could find." 

Note. As is a conjunctive pronoun when used after 
the words such, many, and same. 

31. The farm has been taken possession of. 

- farm | The 

has been taken possession of 
In this sentence "has been taken possession of" is a 
verb phrase used as the predicate. 

32. That man greatly lives, 
What'er his fate or fame, 
Who greatly dies. 



f man ^ r w ho 



That 

Indies I greatly 
greatly f fate 



lives < 

(. [notwithstanding] 



or his 
fame 



[may be] — [thing] | whate'er 
" Notwithstanding " is a preposition having the clause 
following for its object. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



47 



33. Up drawbridge, grooms 
Let the portcullis fall. 



what, warder, ho ! 



(grooms) 

\ [y° u ] 

I [Pull] 



up 
drawbridge | 

(what) (warder) (ho) 
[y° u ] ( the 



the 



let | portcullis j [to] M1 



34. Bird of the broad and sweeping wing, 
Thy home is high in heaven, 
Where the wild storms their banners fling, 
And the tempest-clouds are driven. 



Bird 



of wing <J 



home | Thy 



fthe 
broad 
(and) 
sweeping 

f storms 



high 



in heaven 



fling 



I 
(And)} 



the 
wide 
banners I their 



r tempest - clouds | the 
are driven 



where 



48 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



35. Now blessings light on him that first invented 
sleep ; it covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a 
cloak. 



(Now) 



f blessings 

I 
light I on him 



r 



that 



it 



L invented 
over 1 all 



first 
sleep 



covers <J man 



fa 

J thoughts 

(and) 
I [things] | all 



ike cloak | a 

"Thoughts and things" are both in apposition with 
man. 

" Like " is a preposition. 



Note to Teachers. The teacher should now select a 
variety of exercises from different books and give them 
to the pupils to diagram. 

We have not seen fit to put the exercises in this work 
as the majority of teachers prefer selecting their own 
sentences. 



NOUNS. 

A Proper Noun is the name of some particular per- 
son, place or thing. 

A Common Noun is a name applied to each of a class 
of objects; as, horse, boy, tree, etc. 

Nouns have Number, Person, Gender, and Case. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

Number 

Is that property of nouns and pronouns which shows 
whether one or more than one is meant. 

The Singular Number represents but one. The 
Plural Number represents more than one. 

Most nouns form their plurals by the addition of s or es 
to the singular; as, girl, girls; book, books; tax, taxes; 
etc. 

Many nouns form their plurals variously; as, lady, 
ladies; cargo, cargoes; folio, folios; man, men; tooth, 
teeth; father-in-law, fathers-in-law ; calf, calves; focus, 
foci; analysis, analyses; alumnus, alumni; etc. 

Letters, figures, and characters are pluralized by 
adding 's; as, h's 9 i's, 6's, and 7's. 

When a title is prefixed to a proper name, the expres- 
sion is made plural by pluralizing either the name or the 
title, but not both ; as, the Misses Smith, or the Miss Smiths. 
When the title Mrs.* is used, or the name is preceded by 
an adjective denoting number, the name is always plural- 
ized ; as, the Mrs. Smiths, the three Mr. Broivns. 

The title is always made plural when it refers to two, 
or more persons ; as Drs. Scott and Brunson. 

Some nouns, are used in the singular only ; as, gold], 
wheat, music, darkness, chemistry, and poetry. 

JVeivs, molasses, politics, and mathematics, though 
ending like the plural, are singular. 

Some nouns are used in the plural only; as, ashes, 
billiards, clothes, bitters, scissors, and riches. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep > 
trout, dozen, yoke and species. 



* The proper pronunciation of Mrs. is Missis, not 
Mistress. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The plural of staff, meaning a cane, is staves or staffs. 
The plural of staff, meaning body of officers, is staffs. 

The word fish does not change its form for the plural 
when used collectively, but when used for individuals it 
is written fishes; as, Fish swim in the brook. I saw four 
fishes swimming in the brook. 

Corps is alike in both numbers, but is pronounced 
Kor in the singular and Kbrz in the plural. Thus: Give 
me a corps {Kor) of soldiers. Give me three corps 
{Korz) of soldiers. 

Some nouns have two plurals, each possessing a 
peculiar signification; as, brother, brothers by birth, 
brethren of a community or society ; die, dies, stamps 
for coining, dice for playing; genius, geniuses, men of 
talent, genii, spirits; index, indexes, table of content, 
indices, algebraic signs ; pea, peas, single ones, pease, 
collectively; penny, pennies, coins, pence, value or 
amount. In regard to " Pea," when a definite number 
more than one is spoken " peas" is the form used, as 
the pod contained four peas, but collectively the form 
" pease," is preferred, as a bushel of pease. The form 
" peas," however, is sometimes used in both senses, and 
when so used is by no means void of authority. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns: money, 
sky, rose, potato, inch, piano, muff, sea, toothbrush, 
peach, solo, mosquito, cactus, gas, beau, and sofa. 

Person 
Is the distinction of nouns and jjronoitns to denote the 
speaker, the person or tiling spoken to, or the person or 
thing spoken of. There are three persons: first, second, 
and third. 

The First Person denotes the speaker ; as, I, Darius, 
do make a decree. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

The Second Person denotes the person or thing spoken 
to ; as, John, shut the door. Hail, Liberty. 

The Third Person denotes the person or thing spoken 
of; as, Milton was a poet. Truth is mighty. 



Gender 

Is the distinction of nouns and pronouns with regard to 
sex. 

The Masculine Gender denotes male. 

The Feminine Gender denotes female. 

Some nouns such as table, desk, and tree have no gender. 
In such nouns as children, parent, and bird, the gender 
cannot be determined. 



Gender is distinguished in three ways : 

By a difference in the ending of words; as, count, 
countess; executor, executrix; hero, heroine; emperor, 
empress. 

By using different words; as bachelor, maid ; gander, 
goose; sir, madam; wizard, witch. 

By forming compound words; as, manservant, maid- 
servant ; landlord, landlady ; schoolboy, schoolgirl. 

Such words as, doctor, author, heir, poet, writer, and 
engraver are applicable to either men or women. 

Nouns having no gender frequently become masculine 
or feminine by personification; as, The Sun holds his 
fiery course in midheaven; The Moon shed her pale light 
on that dismal battle scene ; 

Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much. 

See-how the Ship ploughs her way through the rolling 
waves. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



Case 

Denotes the use of a noun or pronoun. 

The Subjective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun 
as a subject or an attribute of a verb. 

The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pronoun 
to limit a noun. 

The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun 
as the object of a verb or & preposition. 

The Independent Case is the use of a noun or pronoun 
without a governing word. 

The subjective, objective, and independent cases of 
nouns are alike in form. 

The Possessive Case of nouns is formed by adding 1 an 
apostrophe and s ('s) to the subjective; as, Jane's slate. 

When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by 
adding an apostrophe only ; as, Boys' hats. 

NOTES. 

1. In forming the Possessive Case of nouns which 
are alike in both numbers, the apostrophe precedes the 
s in the singular and follows it in the plural; as, The 
deer's horn was broken. A load of deers' horns was 
sold. 

2. In forming the Possessive of proper names consist- 
ing of more than one word the sign of the possessive is 
annexed to the last word ; as, John Smith's house. 

3. When two or more names are used to denote joint 
ownership of the same thing, the sign of possession is 
suffixed to the last name only ; as, Susie, Pearl, and 
Llllie's teacher. 

4. When two or more nouns are used to denote sepa 
rate ownership, the sign of possession is suffixed to each 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 



noun; as, Mr. Williams 1 's and Mr •, Smith's books were 
lost. 

5. When two or more nouns are used together and 
refer to the same person or thing, the sign of possession 
is suffixed to that which immediately precedes the noun, 
mentioned or understood, which is limited by j:he pos- 
sessive ; as, I bought my watch at Toivnsley's the ivatch- 
maker and jeweler. 

In this sentence " Townsley's " is a noun in the posses- 
sive case, modifying "store" understood. "Watch- 
maker" and "jeweler" are in the possessive case by 
apposition with " Townsley's." 

6. The Possessive may limit a participial noun; as, 
Laura's singing was admired by all. 

7. When an intervening clause comes between the 
possessive and the thing possessed, the idea of possession 
should be denoted by a preposition and its object; as, 
She praised the peasant's, as he was called, good breed- 
ing ; should be, She praised the good breeding of the 
peasant, as he was called. 

8. In some sentences the sign is placed nearest the word 
possessed without regard to the true ownership ; as, The 
captain of the Fulton's wife is sick. 

" Captain " is a noun in the possessive case and limits 
wife. " Fulton's" is a noun in the objective case, the 
object of the preposition "of." 

9. "Anybody else's, somebody else's, and nobody else's 
are much better expressions than anybody's else, some- 
body's else and nobody's else. The latter are sanctioned 
by very limited authority and we would not advise the 
pupils to imitate them. 

In the above expressions " else " is an adjective limit- 
ing the noun preceding it. 

10. "For conscience' sake," " For goodness' sake,' } 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

etc., seem to be idiomatic exceptions to the rule for form- 
ing the possessive case singular, and while they are sanc- 
tioned by good authority, it is not regarded by the best 
grammarians as being in good taste to form the posses- 
sive of such words as " Thomas," " Jones," " Witness," 
" James," etc., with an apostrophe * only, but conform 
to the simple rule and add an apostrophe and s ('s), 
thus: " Thomas's," " Jones's," "Witness's," and 
" James's." 

In pronouncing words of this character the final " s " 
may or may not be sounded, at the pleasure of the 
speaker. 

11. Usually there is no difference in meaning whether 
the sign of possession is denoted by the apostrophe and s 
or by a preposition and its object, but such is not always 



* It seems to be almost a universal rule among printers 
to form the possessive of such words as " Jones " and 
"James" by annexing an apostrophe only; but this 
method not only makes another exception to the rule of 
forming the possessive singular of nouns, but in many 
cases is ambiguous. For example, if there were a man 
by the name of " Wilsons " and three brothers by the 
name of " Wilson," and if, in the first case we should 
form the possessive by annexing the apostrophe only 
(Wilsons'), and if, in the second case we conform to the 
rule, as we must do in such instances (forming the pos- 
sessive plural of " Wilson" ), we would have "Wilsons'. " 
Plural nouns ending in "s" form their possessive by 
annexing an apostrophe only. Thus it is evident that by 
this method of procedure we could not know by looking 
at the name in the possessive whether three men were 
meant whose names were " Wilson," or whether one man 
was meant whose name was " Wilsons." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 



the case. There is a great deal of difference in the mean- 
ing of the expressions, "My father's picture," meaning 
a picture possessed by my father, and " & picture of my 
father ," meaning a likeness of my father. 

EXERCISES. 

* Correct the following : 

1. Kino- James' translation of the Bible was made in 
the beginning of the seventeenth century. 

2. A carload of sheep's wool for sale. 

3. We saw Miss Minnie Jones' house. 

4. Mason's and Dixon's line will lono; be remembered 
on the pages of history. 

5. Napoleon and Wellington's armies deserved such 
commander's. 

6. He attended to everybody's else business but his 
own. 

7. You will find the books at Brown's the bookseller 
and stationer's. 

8. They tried to prevent John going. 

9. They laughed at the lawyer's, as he was called, 
stupidity. 

10. The representatives' house assembled on the first 
Monday in December. 

11. Men and women's shoes are made here. 

12. Ladies and childrens' hair dressing a specialty. 

The Subjective Case. A noun or pronoun used as the 
subject of a verb, is in the subjective case. 



* Note to Teacher. If the pupils experience any diffi- 
culty in correcting the sentences in this or any other 
lesson, have them to diagram or analyze each sentence 
before attempting to make corrections. 



56 EXGEiSH GRAMMAR. 



NOTES. 

1. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb 
should always have the subjective form. For example : 

Him who expects to succeed in life must be indus- 
trious, should be, He who expects to succeed in life 
must be industrious. 

2. When a person or thing is addressed, that person 
or thing is never used as the subject of a verb; but is 
always in the independent case by address, thus: John, 
shut the door. 

"John" is the independent case, and the subject of 
the verb " shut " is " you " understood. 

3. A noun and the pronoun representing it, should 
not be used as the subject of the same verb: as, The 
weather it was cold, should be, The weather was cold. 

4. The subject should not be omitted, when its omis- 
sion would injure the sense. 



EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. Whom did you say did the mischief? 

2. You and him will go. 

3. Justice it is represented as being blind. 

4. I cannot work so much as him. 

5. James and me write together. 

6. Him who went with me is gone. 

7. Him and I study grammar. 
<3. Me and her went to town. 

9. John and her went to the city. 

10. Lillie and me are going to St. Louis. 

11. You are a much oreater loser than me by his death, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

12. " Point out the man," said the judge, "whom you 
say committed the robbery. " 

13. Him and his friend were almost inseparable. 

14. The whole need not a physician, but them that 
are sick. 

15. He feared that the enemy might fall upon his 
men, whom he saw were off their guard. 

The Independent Case is the use of a noun or pro- 
noun without any particular relation to other words. 

notes . 

1 . A noun or pronoun may be in the independent 
case under the following circumstances: 

When a direct address is made; as, John, shut the 
door. 

By pleonasm,* as, King David, the enemy will over- 
come him. 

When it is the attribute of an infinitive or a participle 
used as a noun: as, To be a good man is not easv. I 
have no recollection of his being judge. 

When it is placed before the participle; as, The sun 
being risen, we pursued our journey. 

By exclamation ; as, "Oh, Popular applause! " 

By position; as, Fewsmith's grammar. 



* Pleonasm is the use of more words than is necessary 
for the complete meaning of the sentence. 

In the above example if we should say, The enemy 
will overcome King David, the idea w r ould be conveyed 
just as clearly as if we were to say King David, the 
enemy will overcome him. 

Thus we see that "King David" in the second in- 
stance is clearly in the independent case by pleonasm. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. When a pronoun is used in the independent case it 
should always have the subjective form, thus : Him 
having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 
Should be, He having ended his discourse, the assembly 
dispersed. 

It is plain that "he" in this sentence is in the in- 
dependent case before a participle. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. Him whom all respected, having committed the 
act, great surprise was felt. 

2. Him having departed, we soon fell asleep. 

3. And them, are not all of them going? 

4. Her having £one, there was no one left. 

5. Us being born in sorrow, our days are spent in 
misery. 

6. Him being defeated, all hostilities ceased. 

7. Me being young, they deceived me. 

8. Oh! happy us, surrounded with so many bless- 
ings. 

9. And me, what shall I do. 

10. Them being absent, the cause cannot be decided. 

The Objective Case. A noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a verb or preposition, is in the objective case.* 

NOTES. 

1. Nouns denoting time, distance, quantity, quality, 
valuation, etc., seem to be used without any governing 
word. They may, however, be disposed of as the objects 



* The subject of an infinitive is usually in the objective 
case. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5^ 



of prepositions understood, or, as in the objective case 
without a o-overnin^ word. 

The horse ran a mile. 

This sentence is said to be equivalent to " The horse 
ran (over or through) a mile." 

It seems very difficult in cases of this kind to supply 
a preposition that expresses the relation intended and in 
consequence of this and other reasons many of our best 
grammarians dispose of them as the objective used with- 
out a governing word. 

2. Many verbs signifying to ask, to teach, to give, etc., 
are apparently followed by two objects, one called the 
direct object and the other, by many grammarians, the 
indirect object. We prefer, however, to reject the term 
indirect object and supply a preposition to govern what 
many of our grammarians are pleased to call the indirect 
object. 

He gave me an apple. 

In this sentence "apple" is the object of "gave" 
and " me " is the object of the preposition " to " under- 
stood. 

3. Such expressions as, He was offered employment, 
He vms presented a prize, He was asked a question, etc., 
are condemned by some grammarians, but as they are 
warranted by the best of usage, we think it much better 
to consider the words, employment, prize, and question as 
the objects of prepositions understood rather than to 
demand a reconstruction of the sentence upon the plea 
of false sj^ntax. 

4. A noun or pronoun may be the object of a par- 
ticiple derived from a verb which requires an object. 
Many infinitives also take objects. 

5. A preposition should not be used between a verb 
and its object. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. Who did you accompany? 

2. He resolved not to permit of such conduct. 

3. Who did you desire to go with you? 

4. He who can learn nothing but by experience, we 
must surely pity. 

5. He that promises much you should not trust. 

6. She placed Mary and I at the head of the table. 

7. I saw he whom I knew to be a rascal. 

8. They left him and I on the beach. 

9. The man who I saw with you is my brother. 

10. He to whom much is given much will be required 
of. 

APPOSITION. 

A Noun or Pronoun used in apposition with another 
noun or pronoun, is in the same case. 

NOTES. 

1. Words in apposition must agree in case, but not 
necessarily in number, person, or gender; as, They love 
each other. "Each" in this sentence is in apposition 
with "they," the meaning being, They, each, love the 
other. 

2. A noun may be in apposition with the whole or a 
part of a sentence, as " The British Parliament claimed 
the right to tax the Americans ivithoitt their consent, a 
principle which the colonists opposed." 

3. When possessives are in apposition the sign is used 
only with the one nearest the noun limited ; as, Peter the 
hermit's eloquence. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. til 



Correct the following sentences: 

1. Will you desert me, I, who has always been your 
friend ? 

2. I lost my knife near Jones', the blacksmith's. 

3. Whom shall we praise? They who do their duty. 

4. They are the lovely, them in whom unite youth's 
fleeting charms with virtue's lovely light. 

5. Our Shepherd, him who is styled king of saints, 
will assuredly give his saints the victory. 

6. Christ, and Him crucified, was the Alpha and 
Omega of all his addresses, the fountain and foundation 
of his hope and trust. 

7. It poured along in most melodious energy of praise, 
to God, the Savior, he of ancient days. 

PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have Number, Gender, Person, and Gaae. 

Declension of Pronouns. 
FIRST PERSON. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Subjective, I. Subjective, We. 

Possessive, My or Mine. Possessive, Our or Ours. 

Objective, Me. Objective, Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 
SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Subjective, You. Possessive, Your or Yours. 

Objective, You. 

THIRD PERSON. 

SINGULAR. 
MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Subjective, He. She, it. 

Possessive, His. Her or Hers, Its. 

Objective, Him. Her, It. 



432 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PLURAL. 

Subjective, They. 
Possessive, Their or Theirs. 
Objective, Them. 

The pronouns, myself, yourself, himself, herself, and 
itself, and their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and them- 
selves, are formed by adding self for the singular, and 
selves for the plural, to the possessives of /and you, and 
the objectives of lie, she, and it. 

They have no possessives and are used in either the 
subjective or objective cases, without change of form, 
thus: He, himself, did it. He struck himself. 

The pronoun it and its compound, itself, have no 
gender. 

The Following- Pronouns do not vary their form for 
"the different numbers and persons, 

For example, "who" is written who when it stands 
for one, and who when it stands for more than one. 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Subjective, Who. Subjective, Whoever. 

Possessive, Whose. Possessive, Whosever. 

Objective, Whom. Objective, Whomever. 

* What has no possessive and is found in the sub- 



* Many grammarians consider what equivalent to two 
words ; namely, that which or the thing which, and if the 
teacher prefers he may so dispose of them, but what is 
simply the neuter of who, the antecedent being under- 
stood, just as the antecedent of who is understood in the 
sentence " I heard who sent it." 

Mr. Butler states that in the Anglo-Saxon language the 
neuter gender of hwa {who) was not Jnoilc (which), but 
lohact (what). 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR'. 63 

jective and objective cases only ; the form being the same 
in each case. 

What is applied to things. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Subjective, Who. Subjective, Which. 

Possessive, Whose. Possessive, Whose. 

Objective, Whom. Objective, Which. 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Subjective, What. Subjective, That. 
Possessive, Possessive, 



Objective, What. Objective, That. 

That has no possessive or compound. It is used in 
either the subjective or objective cases. 

The words used as conjunctive pronouns are: who, 
which, that, and as. 

Who is used to represent persons. 

Which is used to represent things and animals. 

Whichever and whatever the compounds of which and 
what are, in most cases, used either adjectively or sub- 
stantively, hence we prefer to dispose of them as 
adjectives or as adjectives used as nouns. 

Many grammarians call which an interrogative pronoun 
when, in our judgment, it is nothing more than an 
adjective. 

For examnle: Winch will you have? The meaning 
of this sentence certainly is which one will you have. 
Which implies a selection and in such instances as the 
above always modifies a noun understood. 

That is used for mixed antecedents; as, The man and 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the horse that we saw. The dog and the man that were 
in the field. 

That is also used instead of who or which 

After adjectives in the superlative degree; as, he read 
the best books that could be procured. 

After it used indefinitely ; as, It was he that committed 
the fault. 

After who used interrogatively ; as, Who that has any 
sense of right would reason thus. 

After the ivords all, very, same, etc., when followed 
by a restrictive * clause. 

A conjunctive pronoun does not always stand for a 
single word. Its antecedent may be a phrase, a clause, 
or a sentence. His love extends from the richest to 
the poorest, which includes all. We are told to love 
our neighbors as ourselves, which is a christian duty. 
He said that he would noi go, ivhich I feared. He 
comes when he is wanted, as is often the case. He 
did not come, whicli I greatly regret. She sung for 
me, which pleased me very much. 



* When the conjunctive clause is not restrictive and 
could be introduced by and he, and it, and they, etc., who 
or which and not that are usually used. 

For example: Longfellow, that is the most popular 
American poet, has written beautiful prose. In this case 
" that" should be who. 

Some grammarians claim that that should always be 
used in restrictive clauses, but all admit that modern 
writers do not observe this distinction. There are many 
restrictive clauses, however, and especially those follow- 
ing some form of the pronouns /, you, it, she, and he, in 
which it is much more euphonious to use that than who 
or which. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

Correct the following sentences and give reasons for 
correction : 

1. All which we hope for is sometimes denied to us. 

2. The traveler gave an amusing description of the 
persons and animals which he had seen. 

3. All who knew him respected him. 

4. He drives the fastest horses which can he had. 

5. It was she whom you saw. 

6. This is the same horse which we saw yesterday. 

7. Who was it who struck you? 

8. To him who hath, much shall be given. 

9. He is the very man whom we want. 

10. The ablest man who ever lived could not solve 
that problem. 

11. Both the rider and the steed which we saw were 
killed. 

12. Give sorrow words; the grief who does not speak 
breaks the heart. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write four sentences in which " that " is correctly 
used instead of who. 2. Write three sentences in which 
"that" is used to represent mixed antecedents. 3. 
Write four sentences in which " that " is used as an ad- 
jective. 4. Write four sentences in which "that" is 
used as a conjunction. 5. Write three sentences in 
which "that" is used as a conjunctive pronoun. 6. 
Write three sentences in which " what " is used as a sim- 
ple pronoun. 7. Write sentences illustrating the proper 
use of whoever, whosever, whomever, whichever, and 
whatever. 8. Write a sentence in which " that " is used 
to represent a singular antecedent. 9. Write a sentence 
in which " who " is used to represent a plural antece- 
dent. 10. Write three sentences in which" which " is 



6Q ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



used as an adjective. 11. Write two sentences in which 
as " is used as a conjunctive pronoun. 



i i 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. A man who is industrious will prosper. 

This is a complex sentence, in which " man " is the 
subject; " will prosper " is the predicate. The subject 
is modified by the adjective " a " and by the clause " who 
is industrious." 

' k Man " is a common noun, third person, singular 
number, masculine gender , in the subjective case, the sub- 
ject of " will prosper." 

" Will prosper " is a verb. 

" Who" is a conjunctive pronoun, third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, subjective case, the subject of 
"is," and stands for the noun " man." 

" Is " is a verb. 

"Industrious" is an adjective used as an attribute , and 
modifies the pronoun " who." 

2. I must not be tardy. 

3. Those who sow will reap. 

4. Attention is the stuff of which memory is made. 

5. The sick man should be well taken care of. 

6. Sugar is sweet. 

7. Some, cupid kills with arrows; some with traps. 

8. They are such as I could find. 

9. Unless he puts a bridle on his tongue, the babbler 
will soon shut himself out from all society. 

10. The queen seated herself on the throne which had 
been prepared for her. 

11. Quoth the raven, " nevermore." 

12. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways, 
and be wise. 

13. Winter set in early. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

14. Those evening bells ! — how many tales their music 
tells. 

15. Tell me, my soul, can this be death? 

16. The rounded hills slope gently to the sea. 

17. Judge not, and ye shall not be judged. 

18. I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, 
and that is the lamp of experience. 

19. During the Revolution the Americans fought for 
independence. 

20. Whoever sows shall reap. 

21. Now come the soft, smoky days of delightful 
weather, which will soon be followed by the sharp blasts 
of bleak December. 

22. I thought it was he that did it. 

23. I took it to be them. 

24. I know him to be a lawyer. 

25. If I were he I should be a physician. 

26. He is the man that we saw. 

27. It was he that took Burton to be a preacher. 

28. John wishes Mary to be queen. 

29. This is Laura, she whom we all love. 

30. You, yourself, told me so. 

31. If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand 
forget her cunning. 

32. I do not care a straw. 

33. Bright and joyful is the morn. 

34. My opening eyes with rapture see the dawn of this 
returning day. 

* 35. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and 
expression whenever he could find it. 



* If more sentences are desired the teacher may supply 
them from the readers or any other suitable books used 
in the school. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRONOUNS 

Agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, 
person, and number. 

NOTES. 

1. To avoid the appearance of egotism, we is some- 
times used by authors, editors, and others to represent a 
noun in the singular. 

2. In the use of pronouns, the second person should 
precede the third and the third the first. In acknowl- 
edging a fault this is reversed. 

3. A pronoun used to represent two or more nouns 
connected by and should have the plural form ; as John 
and James have lost their way. 

4. If two or more nouns in the singular connected by 
and, are preceded by every, each, no, or a similar ad- 
jective, they are considered separately, and represented 
by a pronoun m the singular; as, every word and every 
thought has its effect upon us. 

5. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns in 
the singular, connected by or, or nor, should be in the 
singular ; as, Neither John nor James was aware of his 
danger. 

6. If one of the nouns connected by or, or nor, is 
plural, the pronoun representing it should be plural, and 
the plural noun should be placed nearest the pronoun; 
as, Neither the captain nor his men were aware of their 
danger. 

7. When the objects composing the unit denoted by 
a collective noun are considered collectively, the noun 
should be represented by a pronoun in the singular num- 
ber; as, Congress holds its meetings in the capitol of the 
United States. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 



8. When the objects composing the unit denoted by a 
collective noun are considered separately, the noun should 
be represented, by a pronoun in the plural number; as, 
The jury were quarreling at the time of their disagree- 
ment. 

9. Nouns in the singular number but of different 
genders connected by or or nor may be represented by a 
singular masculine pronoun ; as, The boy or the girl has 
lost his pen ; or a reconstruction may be made ; as, The 
boy has lost his pen or the girl has lost hers. 

10. The gender of a pronoun representing two or 
more nouns of different genders, connected by and, can- 
not be determined, as, The boy and the girl lost their way. 

11. A conjunctive pronoun should be placed as near as 
possible to the word for which it stands. 

12. Whom and which should generally follow the 
prepositions, but precede the verbs by which they are 
governed. 

The possessive of which is whose. 

13. As there is no pronoun in the English language, 
which, in the singular, may represent either the mascu- 
line or the feminine gender, usage has sanctioned the 
masculine forms; as, The teacher who loves his pupil is 
interested in his welfare. 

14. What is so frequently used for the conjunction 
that, by good speakers, that the usage seems to be war- 
ranted ; as, I do not know but what (that) there is truth 
in your statement. 

15. It is often used indefinitely or to represent an 
antecedent understood, for example: The ground; as, 
It is muddy ; the weather; as, it is cold. 

16. It when used as the subject of the verb be is fre- 
quently followed by an antecedent with which it does not 
agree; as, It is I, It is they, It is John, etc. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

17. If a pronoun in the plural is used to represent 
two or more nouns or pronouns of different persons con- 
nected by and, the pronoun should be in the first person 
if any of the words it represents is in the first person. 
If no ivords are in the first person the pronoun should be 
in the second person provided any of the words for which 
it stands is in the second, person ; as, Mr. Williams and i" 
are going to our homes. You and lie failed in your 
efforts. 

18. The adjectives each, one, either and neither, are 
always in the third person singular; and, when they are 
the principal words in their clauses they require the 
verbs and pronouns to agree with them ; as, Each of" you 
is entitled to his part. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences and give reasons for 
corrections: 

1. Let every boy answer for themselves. 

2. Neither Nelson nor the officers under his command 
failed to do all in his power to defeat the enemy. 

3. The committee, every member being present, 
differed in its opinion respecting the justice of the 
proposed law. 

4. Both James and Samuel learned his lesson. 

5. They had some victuals left and we ate it. 

6. You and your friends cannot always have their 
wishes gratified. 

7. A teacher should always consult the interests of her 
pupils. 

8. You and I must be diligent in your studies. 

9. The task was too difficult for the boy which had 
been assigned to the class. 

10. Everyone in the family should know their duty. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



71 



11. 
12. 

any m 

13. 
him. 

14. 
freedo 
injury 

15. 

16. 
them. 

17. 

18. 
books 



He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. 

And nobody else would make that city their refuge 

ore. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded 

Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and 
in of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the 
of others. 

They need no spectacles that are blind. 
The news came of defeat, but no one believed 

Everyone should have their lives insured. 
Neither the teacher nor the scholars used his 
in the class. 



VERBS 

Have five forms as follows : Sing, sings, sang, sung, and 
singing. 

The principal parts of the verb are: The present 
tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle. 

Verbs which form their past tense and perfect par- 
ticiples by the addition of ed to the present tense, are 
regular verbs, all others are irregular verbs. 

The Principal Parts of the Verb. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

I see, 
They call, 

They run , 
I come, 
I write, 



PAST TENSE. 

I saw, 

They called, 
I went, 
They ran, 
I came, 
I wrote, 



PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

I have seen, 
They have called, 
I have gone, 
They have run, 
I have come, 
I have written. 



Verbs vary their forms to agree with the different 
persons and numbers of their subjects. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Forms of the Verb. 
I am, We are, 

I was, We were, 

He is, They are, 

He has, They have, 

He writes, They write, 

He runs, They run, 

He goes, They go, 

She sings, They sing. 

Care should be taken to use the correct form of the 
verb. The following sentences are correct ; notice the 
forms of the verbs: 

1. The horse runs. 2. The horses run. 3. The bird 
flies. 4. The birds fly. 5. He loves to sing. 6. They 
love to sing. 7. The girl studies. 8. The girls study. 
9. I am going. 10. They are going. 11. The man 
writes. 12. The men write. 

The following sentences have incorrect forms of the 
verb, correct them : 

1. James talk. 2. They loves. 3. He drink. 4. 
They goes. 5. He have ridden. 6. They has ridden. 
7. He wear a silk hat. 8. They writes beautiful letters. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A verb which has not three priucipal parts is said to 
be defective. The following are defective verbs: 



,ESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


Beware, 
Can, 




Could, 


May, 


Might, 


Must, 
Ought, 




Ought, 


Shall, 


Should, 


Will, 


Would. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



73 



Auxiliary Verbs are used in the formation of other 
verbs. The words used as such are: be, do, have, can, 
may, shall, will, must, and need. 

Can, may, must, shall, and will are used as auxiliary 
verbs only. 

TENSES 

Are variations of the verb which distinguish difference 
in time. 

The Present Tense denotes present time. 

The Past Tense denotes past time. 

The Future Tense denotes future time. 

We give below the principal parts of some of the 
most important of the irregular verbs: 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE 


Be or am, 


Was, 


Been, 


Be 


Began , 


Begun, 


Blow, 


Blew, 


Blown, 


Break, 


Broke, 


Broken, 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen, 


Come, 


Came, 


Come, 


Do, 


Did, 


Done, 


Draw, 


Drew, 


Drawn, 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk, 


Drive, 


Drove, 


Driven, 


Eat, 


Ate, 


Eaten, 


Fall, 


Fell, 


Fallen, 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown, 


Freeze, 


Froze, 


Frozen , 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone, 


Get, 


Got, 


Got, 


Give, 


Gave, 


Given, 


Grow, 


Grew, 


Grown, 


Have, 


Had, 


Had, 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PEREECT PARTICIPLE 


Know, 


Knew, 




Known, 


Lay, 


Laid, 




Laid, 


Lie (to rest), 


Lay, 




Lain, 


Ride, 


Rode, 




Ridden, 


Ring, 


Rang or 


rung, 


Rung, 


Rise, 


Rose, 




Risen, 


Run, 


Ran, 




Run, 


See, 


Saw, 




Seen, 


Set, 


Set, 




Set, 


Sit, 


Sat, 




Sat, 


Shake, 


Shook, 




Shaken, 


Sing, 


Sang or 


Sung, 


Sung, 


Slay, 


Slew, 




Slain, 


Speak, 


Spoke, 




Spoken, 


Steal, 


Stole, 




Stolen, 


Swim, 


Swum or Swam, 


Swum, 


Take, 


Took, 




Taken, 


Tear, 


Tore, 




Torn, 


Throw, 


Threw, 




Thrown, 


Wear, 


Wore, 




Worn, 


Write, 


Wrote, 




Written. 



SHALL AND WILL 

Are used to form the future tense of verbs; as, He will 
come. I shall leave you. 

Shall should be used in the first person, and will in 
the second and third to denote future time: as, I shall 
go. You will go. He will go. 

Will should usually be used in the first person, and 
shall in the second and third, to denote determination ; 
as, I will go. You shall go. He shall go. 

The same rules govern the use of should and would 
that govern the use of shall and will. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 

The principal difference between shall and will, in 
the second or third person, may be stated as follows: 
Shall implies duty and obligation that is prompted by 
the force of circumstances without the consent of the 
actor. Will implies willingness, purpose, intention, or 
determination of its subject. It is more courteous to 
say, "you will go," than '* you shall go," because the 
former expression assumes your willingness, and the act 
proceeds from it; while the latter denotes compulsion. 
If I say, " you shall come," I assert that the coming is 
to take place without reference to willingness on your 
part. 

Correct such of the following sentences as need 
correction : 

1. Where will I leave him? 

2. I will be drowned and nobody shall help me. 

3. They requested that the appointment should be 
given to the man who knows his party. 

4. I will never see him again. 

5. When will we get through being punished? 

6. Will I help you tomorrow? 

7. I will be obliged to obey you. 

8. I despise him but I will obey him. 
!). He shall work today. 

10. Will I bring you a glass of water? 

NOTES. 

1. Care should be taken to use such forms of the 
verb as will agree with the person and number of its 
subject. 

2. The pronouns we and you, even when representing 
an individual, require the same form of the verb as the 
plural noun. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



3. A verb having two or more subjects of different 
persons, agrees with the subject nearest to it ; as, He or 
/ am going. 

4. Do not use the perfect partible to express past 
time ; as, I have done the work, for, I did the work, 

5. Auxiliaries are often improperly used before the 
past tense of verbs; as, I have wrote a letter, for, I have 
written a letter. He has went home, for, He has gone 
home. 

6. If a verb has two or more subjects of different num- 
bers connected by or or nor the subject in the plural is 
placed nearest the verb, and the verb agrees with it; as, 
He or his friends are going. 

7. A verb having two or more subjects, mentioned 
or understood, must be of the form which agrees with a 
plural noun; as, Truth, honor, and mercy, are noble 
qualities. 

8. If two or more subjects in the singular connected by 
and are used to denote but one person or tiling, the verb 
should be of the form which agrees with a singular noun; 
as, That statesmen and patriot merits our gratitude. 

9. If singular subjects connected by and, are preceded 
by each, every, no, or a similar adjective, they are con- 
sidered separately, and require the same form of the verb 
as a singular noun ; as, Every nerve and sinew was 
strained to make the offort. 

10. General truths should be expressed in the present 
tense; as, He learned that the earth is round; not the 
earth was round. 

11. If two or more subjects are connected by as well 
as, and also, but not, etc., they belong to different prop- 
ositions, and the verb mentioned agrees with the first, 
each of the others being the subject of a verb understood ; 
as, The mother, as ivell as the child, was saved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

12. A verb having two or more subjects in the singular, 
connected by or or nor should be of that form which 
agrees with singular nouns; as John or James is going. 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 2. 
Having wrote the letter, he mailed it. 3. The torrid and 
the frigid zone represents the extremes of heat and cold. 
4. Have the grammar class recited? 5. They, as well as 
I, am influenced by what he said. 6. Neither she nor 
you studies. 7. The ant and the bee is often cited as 
good examples of industry. 8. A number of persons 
were there. 9. The molasses are very nice. 10. You 
or Mary are mistaken. 11. The bear, as well as the 
deer, are nearly extinct in the eastern part of the United 
States. 12. Circumstances alters cases. 13. The assem- 
bly was divided in its opinion. 14. The committee were 
to examine the account. 15. He has not saw him. 16. 
The legislature have adjourned. 17. Each village and 
each hamlet have their petty chief. 18. She has tore 
her new bonnet. 19. I learned many years ago that the 
sun was a planet. 20. Neither her nor May are here. 

VERB PHRASES. 

A True Verb consists of one word, but frequently 
several words are taken together and used to perform the 
office of a verb. When such is the case, the entire 
expression is regarded as a verb phrase. 

Verb Phrases are made up of one principal verb and 
one or more auxiliary verbs; as, He may be punished. 
The verb phrase " may be punished " is made up of the 
smaller verb phrase " may be " and the perfect participle 
of the verb " punish." 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAlt. 



Forms of Verb Phrases.* 

1. Do, does, or did ^) 

2. May, can, mast, will, shall, might, could, > strike. 

should, or would J 

3. Am, is, are, was, or were — to strike. 

4. Be, am, is, are, was, were 

5. May, can, must, shall, will, might 

could, should, or would be 

6. Have, has, or had been — ' l 

7. May, can, must, shall, will, might, could, 

should, or would have been 

8. Have, has, or had — 



1 

I 

K 

i 
10. Am, is, are, was, or were to have J 



9. May, can,' must, shall, will, miofht, I 

ii I \a ia J ^ struck 

could, should, or would have f 



A Passive Verb Phrase 

Is one which represents its subject acted upon or enduring 
an act ; as, James was struck by William. 

The passive verb phrases are formed by placing some 
form of the verb " be" before the perfect participle of a 
verb which takes an object. Passive verb phrases do not 
take objects. 



* These forms are not given for the pupil to commit to 
memory but merely as a matter of reference to assist in 
forming correct habits of speech. The teacher may 
mention some verbs and have the pupils use them with 
the proper auxiliaries, or have the pupils write essays 
containing all common verb phrases. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 



Forms of Passive Verb Phrases 

1. Be, am, is, are, was, or were 

2. May, can, must, shall, will, might, could, 

should, or would be 

3. Am, is, was, or were to be 

i i 7 r struck. 

4. Have, has, or had been 

5. May, can, must, shall, will, might, could, 

should, or would have been 

6. Was or were to have been 

The object of the verb becomes the subject, when the 
verb is changed into a passive verb phrase. 

For example : John struck Henry. Henry was struck 
by John. 

Write sentences containing the proper forms of the 
following verbs used both in an active and a passive 
sense:* Teach, love, learn, study, cook, build, burn, 
pursue, hill, and write. 

The tense of a verb phrase is determined by the aux- 
iliary verb. 

Verb Phrases frequently end with words which are 
usually used as adverbs or prepositions; as, The farm 
has been taken possession of by the sheriff. He was 
laughed at. In the first sentence " has been taken pos- 
session of" is a verb phrase used as the predicate; in 
the second sentence '« was laughed at " is a verb phrase 
used as the predicate. 

How to Form Certain Verb Phrases. 
In such sentences as the following: The house is 
building; The dinner ^s cooking; " is building" and " is 



* In writing these sentences the pupils should use every 
possible auxiliary before them. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cooking " are passive verb phrases which represent their 
subject as being acted upon. Such expressions as the 
above are frequently doubtful in their meaning, and on 
this account another form of the verb phrase is usually 
preferred. The house is being built. The dinner is 
being cooked. The last form should always be used 
whenever the other would be doubtful in its meaning. 
We may say the dinner is cooking without danger of 
being misunderstood, but it is a great deal better to say 
The thief is being punished, than The thief is punishing . 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write two sentences illustrating the correct use of 
wili in the first person; in the second; in the third. 2. 
Write sentences illustrating the correct use of may, can, 
must, might, could, would, and should. 3. Write four 
sentences containing passive verb phrases. 4. Write 
live sentences containing appositives. 5. Write four 
sentences containing phrases which modify the subject. 
6. Write four sentences containing phrases which modify 
the predicate. 7. Write three sentences containing par- 
ticipial phrases. 8. Write four sentences containing 
infinitive phrases, and change the infinitive phrases into 
subordinate clauses. 

Same Case After the Verb. 

Incomplete Verbs requiring attributes should have the 
same case after them as before them when the word that 
follows them means the same as the subject. 

NOTES. 

1. The verbs which most frequently separate nouns 
and pronouns meaning the same person or thing are: 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 

be, become, appear, grow, call, choose, consider, make, 
etc. In such sentences as the following: I supposed it to 
be him, the word " it " is in the objective case ; the sub- 
ject of the infinitive "to be." Consequently the word 
that follows the infinitive " him " is in the objective case; 
but in the sentence, I thought it was he, the word " it " 
is in the subjective case, the subject of the verb " was." 
Consequently the noun or pronoun that follows the verb 
is also in the subjective case. 

2. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of an in- 
finitive, when the subject of the infinitive is expressed, is 
commonly in the objective case. If, however, the subject 
of the infinitive is not expressed or it is the same as the 
subject of the verb and the infinitive is followed by a 
noun or pronoun used attributively, the word following 
is usually in the subjective or the independent case; as, 
It was taken to be he. 

It certainly could not have been thought to be they. 
I wish to be he. 

3. When the participles of any of the above verbs are 
limited by a possessive and immediately followed by a 
noun or pronoun, the noun or pronoun is in the independ- 
ent case; as, The fact of its being he need not alter your 
opinion. 

4. In a clause expressing doubt, supposition, desire or 
denial, if the verb is some form of the verb "be," it 
should be of that form which agrees with a plural noun. 
It matters not whether the subject is singular or plural: 
as, If I were you, not, If I was you. If I were he, not 
If I was he. 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. It could not have been her. 2. It was thought to 
be him. 3. It was him that issued the order, although 

6 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



the people for a long time disbelieved it to be he. 4. 
They believed it to be I. 5.1 thought it was him. 6. 
That is her. 7. The court had no doubt of its being 
them who were guilty. 8. If I were him or her, I 
would improve the opportunities presented to me. 9. 
That's him. 10. If I had known it to be she, I would 
have spoken to her in a very different manner. 11. If 
I were her I would leave you. 12. I do not believe that 
I would consent if I was you. 13. Its being him is just 
what's the matter. 14. It is said to be him. 15. I 
supposed it to be she. 

SIT, SET, LIE, AND LAY. 

The complete verbs sit and lie convey the idea of rest 
or repose and should never have objects. The incom- 
plete verbs set and lay express action and take objects. 
It is correct to say, He set the pitcher of water on the 
table, but it is not correct to say, He set down. The 
verb set is, however, properly used as an incomplete 
verb when we say, The stars set, or, the sun sets, but Mr. 
White has shown that set used in this way is a corruption 
of the verb settle. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. The old man sets in his easy chair. 2. Here is set- 
ting room. 3. Take a chair and set down. 4. The ship 
lays at the wharf. 5. We sat forty peach trees in the 
orchard. 5. Please sit the pitcher on the shelf. 7. I 
have lain the book on the table. 8. He has laid down. 
9. Tell him to go and lay down. 10. Myrtle has lain 
the book on the organ. 

EXPECT, TEACH, AND LEARN. 

Expect means to look for something which is to hap- 
pen in the future. Do not use it in the sense of conclude. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

suspect, suppose, or think. It is correct to say I expect a 
friend to call on me to-morrow, but incorrect to say, I 
expect the earth is round. 

Teach means to impart knowledge. Learn is to ac- 
quire it. Care should be taken not to misuse them. 

Correct the following: 

1. Please learn me how to knit. 

2. I learned him grammar. 

3. I expect you are angry with me. 

4. I expect he is trying to injure me. 

5. I expect I know my lesson. 

exercises . 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with 
some form of lie or lay: 

The rain has the dust. He down to sleep. 

They have for three hours. Lydia book on 

my desk. I wish you would please letter down. 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with 
some form of sit or set: 

Mr. Smith is out tomato plants. Will you 

by me? Please pitcher on the table. Who 

the table? She in the front row. I saw a man 

who was by the roadside. I wish you would 

pitcher down, and let it there. The physician has 

the boy's arm. The hen is on fifteen eggs. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 

I never thought of his doing the work. 
This is a simple sentence. 

" I " is a pronoun in the singular number, first person, 
and subjective case; the subject of " thought." 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



" Thought" is a verb in the past tense, used as the 
predicate of "I." " Of " is a proposition showing the 
relation between " thought " and " his doing the work." 
" His doing the work " is a phrase used as the object of 
the preposition "of." 

" His " is a pronoun, in the singular number, third 
person, masculine gender, possessive case, and modifies 
"doing." 

* "Doing" is a participle used as a noun, having 
"work" for its object. "The" is an adjective 
modifying " work." " Work " is a common noun, sin- 
gular number, third person, and objective case; the object 
of " doing." 

Doing may be called a participle used as a- noun or a 
participial noun. Many- grammarians insist that a dis- 
tinction should be made in the use of these terms, but 
those who will take the trouble to investigate our stan- 
dard authors on grammar will find that if there is such 
a distinction it cannot be conformed to the sentences 
given as examples by our grammarians. The following 
sentence is given in Goold Brown's Grammar of Gram- 
mars, page 239, to illustrate the participial noun: The 
triumphing of the wicked is short. The following one 
is given by Eaub, page 204, to illustrate the participle 
used as a noun: Our buying the books so soon was corn- 
mended. Both of these sentences are in direct violation of 
the laws laid down by those who attempt to refute the 
synonyms of these terms. 



* In the above sentence " doing" may be disposed of 
as the object of the preposition " of " and " work " may 
be disposed of as the object of " doing." A participial 
noun may be used as the object of a verb or preposition 
and at the same time govern an object. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

1. I do not remember its being she. 

2. It is you to whom I am indebted for the favor. 

3. I did not think of his striking me. 

4. Money is scarce and times are hard. 

5. He gave me a book. 

6. I went home. 

7. He taught me how to read. 

8. He remained many years after returning home. 

9. The orations of Caesar were admired for strength 
and eloquence. 

10. I saw the man, he of whom you spoke. 

11. Few shall part where many meet. 

12. The rain ceasing, a rainbow appeared. 

13. The ship sinking, the crew were lost. 

14. The dread of death arises from an illusion of the 
imagination. 

15. In examining evidence, the mind should be 
unbiased. 

16. No evil is so slight that it should not be avoided. 

17. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 

18. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 

19. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 

20. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to 
win victories by turning summersets in the air. 

21. Prayer is the key of the morning, and the bolt of 
night. 

22. Worth makes the man ; want of it the fellow. 

23. Puff balls have grown six inches in a single night. 

24. They offered Caesar the crown three times. 

25. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

26. Alexander, the conqueror of the Persian empire, 
died at Babylon. 

27. He who receives a good turn should never forget 
it ; and he who does one should never remember it. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



28. Make proper use of jour time; for the loss of it 
can never be regained. 

29. He is a free man whom the truth makes free. 

30. The eye is the window of the soul. 



ADJECTIVES. 

Comparison is a statement of the different forms of an 
adjective. 

There are three degrees of comparison : 

The Positive which expresses the simple quality. 

The Comparative and the Superlative which are used 
in comparing objects which differ in degree. 

The Superlative is said to express the highest or lowest 
degree of comparison, while the comparative seems to 
be a degree between the positive and superlative. 

HOW COMPARED. 

Words of one syllable are compared by suffixing r or 
er to the positive, to form the comparative, and st or est 
to the positive to form the superlative ; as, 

short, shorter, shortest. 

fit, fitter, fittest, 

wise, wiser, wisest, 

hard, harder, hardest, 

soft, softer, softest. 

Many words of two syllables are compared the same as 
the words of one syllable ; as, 

sincerest. 

ablest. 

handsomest. 



sincere, 


sincerer, 


able, 


abler, 


handsome, 


handsomer, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



87 



common, 


commoner, 


commonest. 


pleasant, 


pleasanter, 


pleasantest. 


guilty, 


guiltier, 


guiltiest. 


holy, 


holier, 


holiest. 


gentle, 


gentler, 


gentlest. 


narrow, 


narrower, 


narrowest. 


yellow, 


yellower, 


yellowest. 



Words of more than one syllable are usually compared 
by placing more for less to the positive to form the com- 
parative; and most or least, to the positive to form the 
superlative ; thus, 



beautiful 


more beautiful, 


most beautiful 


beautiful, 


lessjbeautiful, 


least beautiful. 


famous, 


more famous, 


most famous. 


famous, 


lessjfamous, 


least famous. 


distant, 


more distant, 


most distant. 


distant, 


less distant, 


least distant. 


Some adjectivesfare compared irregularly; as, 


good, 


better, 


best. 


bad, 


worse, 


worst. 


little, 


less, 


least. 


fore, 


former, 


first. 


late, 


later, 


last. 


much, 


more, 


most. 



There are jmany adjectives, which according to their 
strictest sense, do not admit comparison; but they are 
often used with a certain latitude of meaning which 
renders their comparison admissible, and in accordance 
with the usages laid down by our best writers for 
centuries past. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We mention the following as examples : 
* Honest, true, correct, sincere, perfect, round, square, 
perpendicular, and inferior. 

NOTES. 

Adjectives Relate to Nouns and Pronouns. 

t 1. It is usually said that the comparative degree 
should be used when a comparison is made with two 
objects and the superlative degree when comparison is 
made with more than two objects; as, He is the better 
boy of the two. 

He is the best boy of the three. 

2. A, and an, can relate to nouns in the singular only, 
except when the words " few," if many," " dozen," 
"thousand," etc., come between them and the noun. 
Then they may relate to plural nouns; as, A few men, a 
dozen flies, etc. 



* Knowing that it is hypercritically affirmed by many 
grammarians that these adjectives do not admit compari- 
son, we beg to call the pupil's attention to the following 
sentences : 

44 And to render nations more perfect in the knowledge 
of it."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 171. " No poet has ever 
attained a greater perfection than Horace." — Blair's 
Led., p. 393. "More wise, more learn' d, more just, 
more everything." — Pope. " From the first rough 
sketches, to the more perfect draughts." — Bolingbroke 
on Hist., p. 152. " The most perfect." — Adam's LecL 
on Rhet., i, 99 and 136; ii, 17 and 57: Blair's Lect., 
pp. 20 and 399. 

t The above note is not strictly true as our best writers 
seem to take no particular cognizance of it even in their 
choicest productions. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

3. The may relate to nouns in either the singular or 
plural number. The points things out definitely; a and 
an indefinitely. A should be used before consonant 
sounds; an before vowel sounds. A should be used 
before long u; as, He wore a uniform. 

4. A, an, and the should be used before each of two or 
more adjectives in a series when they modify different 
nouns. When they modify the same noun they should 
be used but once; as, An intelligent and a white man, 
means two men. An intelligent and white man, means 
one man. 

5. If a comparison is expressed between two nouns re- 
ferring to the same person or thing, adjectives should be 
used before the first one only; as, He is a better editor 
than lawyer. The expression, He is a better editor than 
a lawyer, means that he is a better editor than a lawyer 
is an editor. 

6. The adjective should not be used before the name 
of a species included in a class ; as, The dog is a faithful 
kind of an animal, should be, The dog is a faithful kind 
of animal. 

Notice the following expressions from standard 
authors: 

" When our sentence consists of two members, the 
longest should, generally, be the concluding one." — 
Blair's Rhet., p. 117: and Jamieson's, p. 99. "The 
shortest member being placed first, we carry it more 
readily in our memory as we proceed to the second." — 
lb., & lb. 

" In the first of these two sentences." — Churchill's 
Gram., p. 162; Lowth, p. 120. 

According to the rule given by many grammarians 
" first " in the above sentence should have been «* for- 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mer; " but this would be ambiguous because former 
might mean maker. 

7. When the comparative degree is used, the latter 
term should never include the former ; as, He is more 
admired than any poet, should be, He is more admired 
than any other poet. 

8. When the superlative degree is used, the latter 
term should always include the former; as, Longfellow 
is the most admired of all the other American poets, 
should be, Longfellow is the most admired of all the 
American poets. 

9. Care should be taken in the arrangement of ad- 
jectives. There is quite a difference in the meaning 
expressed by the sentences, A lady's black glove, and 
A black lady's glove. 

10. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives ; as, 
A more sweeter thought, should be, A sweeter thought. 

The double comparative "lesser" is sanctioned by 
good authority; as, The lesser Asm. 

11. Avoid using adverbs as adjectives; as, The chil- 
dren feel finely, should be, The children feel fine. The 
stars look brilliantly to-night, should be, The stars look 
brilliant to-night. 

12. It is bad English to say, Charles is taller than any 
one in the family, for he is one of the family, and this 
sentence makes him taller than himself. It should be, 
Charles is taller than any one else in the family. It is 
also bad English to say, George is the tallest of his 
brothers; for, he is not one of his own brothers, but this 
sentence makes him so. It should be, George is taller 
than any of his brothers. 

13. There is authority for using interchangeably the 
expression, the first two, the two first; the last three, 
and the three last. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 



Correct the following sentences: 



a 



1. Mary is the tallest of her sisters. 

2. Noah and his family outlived all the people who 
lived before the flood. 

3. The flea is stronger than any insect of its kind. 

4. The dove is a peaceabler bird than the jay. 

5. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

6. No person was ever so perplexed as he has been 
to-day. 

7. John behaves very civil. 

8. I would go a long ways to hear him speak. 

9. He gave me a large and small knife. 

10. Franklin was no less a statesman than a philoso- 
pher. 

11. That was a awful accident. 

12. The black and the white horse was injured by his 
fall. 

13. My father thought me worse than any of his 
children. 

14. I have the most elegantest hat. 

15. Words taken independent of their meaning are 
parsed as nouns in the neuter gender. 

16. The title of a duke was bestowed upon Welling- 
ton. 

17. The tall and short man were in the street together. 

18. The sweet and sour apple came from the same 
orchard. 

19. He writes remarkably elegant. 

20. Rhode Island is smaller than any State of the 
Union. 

21. He is a wise and a true man. 

22. Webster was a more celebrated orator than a 
statesman. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, AND NEITHER. 

The above adjectives require the nouns which they 
modify to be in the singular. 

1. Each is used to denote two or more objects taken 
separately ; as, Each man is entitled to his share. Grass 
grows on each side of the road. 

2. Every is applied to more than two objects taken 
separately, but comprehends them all, as, Every man is 
known by his actions. Every is sometimes joined to a 
plural noun; as, Every ten years. 

3. Either and neither are used to refer to two 
objects only; as, Either of the two apples. Instead of 
saying, Either of the fifty men, say, Any of the fifty men. 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. Trees grow on every side of the creek. 2. Take 
either of the twenty apples. 3. Neither of the three 
girls were there. 4. Each tree is known by its fruit. 
5. There is nice grass on every bank of the river. 

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, ETC. 

1. This and that refer to singular nouns. These and 
those to plural nouns. This, and its plural these, are 
used in speaking of things near us, or things last re- 
ferred to. That and its plural those, are used in speak- 
ing of things at a distance, or things first referred to. 

2. The pronoun them is often improperly used for the 
adjective those; as, Them peaches are good, should be, 
Those peaches are good. 

3. When the noun is plural the adjective which 
modifies it must be plural; as six miles, thirty dollars. 

4t. Some nouns used collectively retain the singular 
form, though limited by a plural noun. Thus, Forty 
head of cattle. A fleet of forty sail. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

5. When a compound adjective consists of an adjective 
and a noun, the noun part retains the singular form ; as, 
A ten-cent piece. A three-month scholarship. 

6. Do not use this here and that there for this and that. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. Those are good molasses. 

2. Them apples are nice. 

3. Will you drive them cattle out of the yard? 

4. Those kind of apples is sweet. 

5. Neither of them three men were in the room. 

6. Did you place them books on the shelf? 

7. The boy ran six mile an hour. 

8. The lot i3 bounded on the south by a sixteen-feet 
alley. 

9. A herd of ninety heads of cattle are grazing on 
the meadow. 

10. Sallie took a twelve-months scholarship. 

11. Give me that there book. 

12. He bought a four-years old horse. 

ADVERBS. 

Be careful to place adverbs where they will express 
the meaning intended. 

NOTES. 

1. When the adverbs, Whence, Thence, Where, 
There, etc., are preceded by the preposition from they 
become nouns. Thus the expression, " From whence 
cometh my help? " means, " From what place cometh 
my help? " It would be more elegant to omit " from," 
for when the adverb vjhence is used, the idea conveyed 
by the preposition is implied. 

2. The adverb should not be used as the attribute of a 
verb. It cannot modify the subject ; as, The city looks 
gaily, should be, The city looks gay. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Usually the adverbs very and too, should not mod- 
ify participles; as, I was too enraged to speak, should 
be, I was too much enraged to speak. 

4. Do not use two negative words to express a nega- 
tion ; as, I haven't nothing to do, should be, I haven't 
anything to do, or I have nothing to do. 

5. Do not use that instead of so; as, He is that proud 
that he will not speak to us, should be, He is so proud 
that he will not speak to us. 

6. * Never put any word between to and its verb ; such 
expressions as, To not know, should be Not to know. 



* Of the infinitive verb and its preposition to, some 
grammarians say, that they must never be separated by 
an adverb. It is true, that the adverb is, in general, 
more elegantly placed before the preposition than after 
it ; but, possibly, the latter position of it may sometimes 
contribute to perspicuity, which is more essential than 
elegance ; as, " If any man refuse so to implore, and to 
so receive pardon, let him die the death." Fuller on the 
Gospel, p. 209. The latter word so if placed like the 
former, might possibly be understood in a different sense 
from what it now bears. But perhaps it would be better 
to say, " If any man refuse so to implore, and on such 
terms to receive pardon, let him die the death." " Honor 
teaches us properly to respect ourselves." — Murray's 
Key, ii, 252. Here it is not quite clear, to which verb 
the adverb "properly" relates. Some change of the 
expression is therefore needful. The right to place an 
adverb sometimes between to and its verb, should, I 
think, be conceded to the poets: as, " Who dare to 
nobly stem tyrannic pride." — Burns: C. Sat. N. 

From Goold Brown's Grammar of Eng. Gram., p. 
661. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 

7. As — as, is used to express equality; as, He is as 
good as I. So — as, is used to deny equality; as, He is 
not so good as I. 

8. Do not use where for when; as, Where a man tries 
to do right, he should be encouraged, should be, When 
a man tries to do right, he should be encouraged. 

9. Avoid using no for not; as, Did he come or no, 
should be, Did he come or not. 

10. When the adverb " ever " follows such words as 
" seldom" and " rarely" it is preceded by "if " and 
the adverb never in such cases, is preceded by "or;" 
thus: Seldom if ever, Rarely or never. 

11. In the use of only and not only we should be care- 
ful to place them so as to express the meaning intended, 
as, Only they marched an hour. In this sentence only 
is an adjective modifying they. They only marched an 
hour. In this sentence only is an adverb modifying 
marched. They marched an hour only. Here only is 
an adjective modifying hour. 

12. Many adverbs are compared the same as adjec- 
tives. Thus, often, oftener, oftenest; fast, faster, 
fastest; soon, sooner, soonest; frequently, more fre- 
quently, most frequently . 

13. The adverbs yes, no, etc., when used in answer to 
questions, are usually equivalent to entire propositions. 
They may, however, be disposed of as adverbs used 
independently. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following: 

1. That dress looks prettily upon her. 

2. My head feels badly. 

3. She looks neatly. 

4. He learns easy. 

5. Feathers feel softly. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. He doesn't know nothing. 

7. He intended to often visit me. 

8. I was that faint that I could hardly walk. 

9. They were nearly dressed alike. 

10. You walk too slow. 

11. Nobody suspects you ever. 

12. The tortured man begged that they would kill him 
again and again. 

13. The children feel finely. 

14. I only have one apple. 

15. I never saw a dog with such a bushy tail before. 

16. Pupils should be taught to carefully spell the 
words. 

17. I have thought of marrying often. 

18. Charlie can't nowhere be found. 

19. She can look gracefully in that dress. 

20. I cannot see to write no more. 

CONJUNCTIONS 

Connect the sentences, parts of sentences, and words 
between which they are placed. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect sentences or * ele- 
ments of equal rank; as, James went, but John stayed 
at home; He is a studious and intelligent boy. 

f Subordinate Conjunctions connect elements of un- 
equal rank ; as, He will teach us if he has time; He left 
because his life was in danger. 



* An element is a part of a sentence. It may be a 
word, a phrase, or a clause. 

t We will here state that no sharp line of distinction 
can be drawn between subordinate conjunctions and con- 
junctive adverbs. A similar note is also given by Mr. 
Whitney in Whitney's Essentials of Eng. Gram., p. 150. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



97 



Co-ord 


inate Conjunctions. 


also, 




n*y> 


although, 




neither, 


and, 




neither — nor, 


besides, 




nor, 


both, 




nor — nor, 


*both — and 




now, 


but, 




or, 


either, 




or — or, 


either — or 




otherwise, 


else, 




so, 


further, 


i 


still, 


furthermore, 




through, 


likewise, 




yet, 


moreover, 







Subordinate Conjunctions. 



After, 


however, 


than, 


as, 


if, 


that, 


as — as, 


if — then, 


then, 


as — so, 


inasmuch as, 


therefore, 


as well as, 


in case, 


though — yet, 


because, 


notwithstanding, 


thus, 


but, 


provided, 


unless, 


except, 


since, 


wherefore, 


for, 


so — as, 




howbeit, 


so — that, 





* Such conjunctions as both — and, either — or, 
neither — nor, as — as, so — as, etc., are called corre- 
sponsives, 

7 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



NOTES. 

1. There is generally an ellipses in a clause connected 
by as or than. The noun or pronoun following these 
words is usually the subject of a suppressed verb; as, He 
is farther advanced than 7, means that, He is farther 
advanced than lam advanced. 

2. When words or clauses are connected by correspond 
sives, care should be taken to make the right selec- 
tion. 

3. Words having the form of conjunctions, and used 
to introduce sentences are called expletives. 

4. Do not use where instead of which in reference to 
what is not strictly place. It is correct to say, This is 
the place where I saw him, but the sentence, I know the 
page where the mistake may be found, should be, I 
know the page on which the mistake may be found. 

5. Do not use- and instead of to before the infinitive; 
as, Try and behave yourself, should be, Try to behave 
yourself. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. Try and come to-morrow. 2. This is the letter 
where he speaks of his journey. 3. Neither the man 
or his horse was found. 4. It was no other but his 
father. 5. He would neither do it himself or let me do 
it. 6. Where a man tries to do what is right he ought 
to be encouraged. 7. Did you say this is so good as 
that? 8. Try and do your duty cheerfully. 9. The 
book is not as well printed as it ought to be. 10. I 
could not but buy it, only borrow it. 11. This is not 
as new as that. 12. Cornwallis could not do otherwise 
but surrender. 



ENGLISH G RAMMA K 



99 



PREPOSITIONS 



Shew the relation 


between their 


object 


and some otlte 


word. 








List of Prepositions. 




a, 


between, 




past, 


abaft, 


betwixt, 




pending, 


aboard, 


beyond, 




per, 


about, 


but, 




respecting, 


above, 


by, 




round, 


across, 


concerning, 




save, 


adown, 


despite, 




saving, 


after, 


during, 




since, 


against, 


ere, 




till, 


along, 


except, 




to, 


amid, 


excepting, 




touching, 


amidst, 


far, 




toward, 


among, 


from, 




towards, 


amongst, 


in, 




under, 


around, 


into, 




underneath, 


as, 


like, 




unlike, 


aslant, 


near, 




until, 


astride, 


next, 




unto, 


at, 


nigh, 




up, 


athwart, 


notwithstan 


ding, 


upon, 


before, 


of, 




versus, 


behind, 


off, 




via, 


below, 


on, 




with , 


beneath, 


opposite, 




within, 


beside, 


over, 




without,. 


besides, 








aboard of, 


as 


to, 




as for, 


but for, 





100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



from among, 

from between, 

from off, 

from under, 

out of, 

over against, 

according to, 

contrary to, 

devoid of, 

in consideration of, 

instead of, 



in place of, 
in respect to, 
on account of, 
previous to, 
in spite of, 
with respect to, 
in the relation of, 
in the character of, 
to the extent of, etc., 
re^ardle^s of, 



Remark. The pupil will please bear in mind that 
many words in the above list are also used as other parts 
of speech. 

Care should be taken to use such prepositions as 
express the relations intended. 

A few of the most important combinations of prepo- 



sitions are here given: 



Abstain from. 

Access to. 

Accompanied by, with. 

Account of, for, to. 

Accuse of. 

Admit of. 

Agree with a person ; to 
things proposed ; upon 
things or conditions. 

Allude to. 

Angry with a person ; at a 
thing. 

Apply to. 

Approve of. 



Believe in, on. 

Bestow on, upon. 

Call on a person ; at a 

place; for a thing. 
Concur with a person; in 

opinion. 
Confide in. 
Copy from a thing ; after a 

person. 
Correspond to, with. 
Dictate to. 
Die of a disease; by the 

sword ; for another. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



101 



Differ with or from a per- 
son in opinion ; from a 
person or thing in some 
quality. 

Different from. 

Disagree to a proposal ; 
with a person. 

Equivalent to. 

Equal to, with. 

Expelled from. 

Independent of. 

Intimate with. 

Inseparable from. 

Listen for expected sound ; 
to present sound. 

Negotiate with. 

Preferable to. 

Profit by. 



Proud of. 

Reconcile a thing with ; a 
person to. 

Rejoice at or in news ; with 
a person. 

Rid of. 

Smile on favorably ; at un- 
favorably. 

Sneer at. 

Sorry for. 

Strive with a person ; for 
an object. 

Thankful for. 

True to. 

Void of. 

Wait on, upon, for, at. 

Useful to a person ; for a 
purpose. 



NOTES. 

1. Between refers to two objects or sets of objects, 
among, to more than two. 

2. Such expressions as in short, in fine, etc., may be 
used as adverb phrases, or short and. fine may be disposed 
of as nouns in the objective case, object of the prepo- 
sition in. 

3. Two prepositions sometimes come together ; as, 
the stream flows/rom between the rocks. They are then 
called compound prepositions. 

4. Into, should be used after a verb denoting en- 
trance; as, I put my knife into my pocket. 

5. We differ with or from a person in opinion, from 
him in looks. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

From, is used after the verb differ, but never after to 
or than. 

6. In such sentences as, He went a fishing, and He 
went a hunting, a is used as a preposition. 

7. But when used in such a construction as " all but 
me " is often considered a conjunction. 

Bat, however, in cases of this kind is an old preposition 
meaning without or except, and all modern authorities 
favor its use in a prepositional sense. 

8. The Latin prepositions per, versus, and via are 
employed in tome technical expressions ; as, " Fourteen 
dollars per barrel; " " Smith versus Jones; " " Go via 
theM., K. &T." 

9. The words worth, like, unlike, near, next, and 
nigh, are considered prepositions by some of our very 
best grammarians; the pupil may, however, supply a 
preposition and consider them as other parts of speech. 
Thus, He sat near (to) the wall ; He is not like (unto) 
his brother. 

10. Care should be taken to construct sentences so 
that they will express the meaning intended to be con- 
veyed. 

For example, Runaway — A hired man named, John; 
his nose turned up five feel eight inches high. This 
sentence should be reconstructed. It may be expressed 
thus ; Run away — A hired man named John. His nose 
turns up, aud he is five feet eight inches high. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. I differ to you in that opinion. 

2. For sale, a piano, by a gentleman with richly 
carved rosewood legs, who is about to sail for Europe. 

3. The soldiers were perishing for thirst. 

4. My circumstances are different to yours. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 



5. The twelve men began to quarrel between them- 
selves. 

6. The soil is adapted for cotton and tobacco. 

7. You may safely confide on him. 

8. I was at London when this happened. 

9. Lettiecame in the room unobserved, and set down 
on a chair. 

10. Dan and Charlie have gone in the garden to take 
a walk. 

11. The' teacher compared this book to them. 

12. Wanted a young man to take care of some horses 
of a religious turn of mind. 

13. He rode to town and drove twelve cows on horse- 
back. 

14. A public dinner was given to the inhabitants of 
roast-beef and plum-pudding. 



INFINITIVES. 

The infinitive is a form of the verb which may be used 
as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

* The subject of an infinitive is usually in the objective 
case ; as, I took James to be John. He thought him to 
be a lawyer. 



* When the subject of the infinitive is the same as the 
subject of the verb limited by the infinitive, the subject of 
the infinitive is in the subjective case. For example: 
John expected to buy a horse. It was supposed to be he. 
It is extremely doubtful whether this exception need 
be considered by the ordinary student of grammar, since 
so far as we have to do practically with the subject of 
the infinitive it is in the objective case. In instances of 
this kind and many others it seems to simplify matters 
to consider the infinitive as used without any particular 
subject. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



NOTES . 

1. To is the sign of the infinitive, and should never be 
separated from it. The sign to, however, is omitted after 
the verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, make, need, see, let, etc., 
and sometimes after please, have, and help. 

2. The infinitive without to is also frequently used after 
had. rather, had belter, had as lief, etc. ; as, He had rather 
go. You had better stay. I had as lief work as play. 
In the first sentence " he " is the subject, " had " is the 
predicate, modified by " rather," an adverb. " To go " 
is an infinitive, the sign "to" being omitted. The 
above expressions though frequently criticised, are sanc- 
tioned by good authority. All inconsistencies, however, 
may be avoided by using would instead of had. 

3. Every infinitive and participle has the construction: 
of a noun, adjective, or adverb. 

4. A noun or pronoun preceding an infinitive should 
be considered the subject of the infinitive, when the 
infinitive phrase can be changed into a clause, and the 
clause used as the subject or the object of a verb. 

For example, For a man to be proud of his learning is 
the greatest ignorance. John wishes Mary to go. 

If we substitute a clause for the infinitive phrase in the 
first sentence, the sentence would read "That a man should 
be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance," and 
the second sentence will read, " John wishes that Mary 
should go," here it is evident that the words " man " 
and " Mary " are used as subjects of infinitives. 

5. Some infinitives and participles when used as nouns 
are often followed by a noun or pronoun in the independ- 
ent case ; as, to be he is to be a scholar. 

I never thought of its being they. 

6. Usually the present tense of the infinitive should be 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 

used with the past tense of the verb, and the past tense of 
the infinitive should be used with the present tense of the 
verb ; as, Milton seems to have had a wonderful imagina- 
tion. 

The miller was bound to return the flour. 

7. When several infinitives come together, to is often 
used before the first and omitted before the others ; as, 
They come to see, hear, and judge for themselves. 

8. The sign to of the infinitive should not be used alone 
for the full infinitive form. For example, I did not go 
nor do I intend to, should be, I did not go nor do I intend 
to do so. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. We shall find the practice perfectly accord with 
the theory. 

2. I saw him to write on his slate. 

3. He made the horses to go very fast. 

4. It is unjust to so decide the case. 

5. It is better to suffer wrongfully than be guilty of 
wrong. 

6. Come and visit me soon. 

7. We were directed to go but we did not wish to. 

8. We ought not to try and over-define or prove God. 

9. He was heard say that the train was late. 

10. It is wrong to not study our lessons. 

11. To not attend is to not remember. 

12. I never voted that ticket, and I never intend to. 

13. He did no more than it was his duty to have 
done. 

14. I found him better than I expected to have found 
him. 

15. I wished to have gone with my friends into the 
country, but I was forbidden to. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PARTICIPLES. 

The Participle is a variation of the verb, sharing 
its nature, but used as an adjective, or a noun, or part of 
a verb-phrase. 

The Imperfect Participle is one that expresses unfin- 
ished action, or condition, at the time indicated by the 
verb in the sentence ; 

As, The evening train, turning a sharp curve was 
thrown from the track. 

The Perfect Participle is one that expresses the action 
or condition as completed or finished at the time indicated 
by the verb ; 

As, A tree overturned by the wind, lay across our path. 

Notes on the Participle. 

1. * The Perfect Participle should never be used 
instead of past tense to express past time; as, Henry seen 
him do it, should be Henry saw him do it. 

2. The adjective the should precede a participial noun 
and the preposition of should follow, or they both should 
be omitted; as, He delights in studying of grammar ; 
should be, He delights in the studying of grammar; or, 
He delights in studying grammar. 

3. The meaning is usually the same when the is used 
before and of after a participial noun as when they ate 
omitted; but such is not always the case; for there is a 



* The pupil should consult the dictionary whenever he 
is in doubt as to the perfect participle or past tense form 
of a verb. For the benefit of those, however, who have 
no dictionary convenient, we have, with much labor, 
arranged a list of irregular verbs and placed it in the 
appendix to this work. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 

great difference in the meaning expressed by, The man 
was ruined by burning his house, and, The man was 
ruined by the burning o/his house. 

4. When the participle is used as a noun it is frequently 
limited by a possessive: as, They tried to prevent his 
going. 

The * objective is often used for the possessive; as, 
They tried to prevent him going. 

5. Do not use a Participial Noun when the meaning 
can be more elegantly expressed by the use of an infini- 
tive and its object; as, Reading poetry properly requires 
a knowledge of the author's meaning, would better be, 
To read poetry properly, requires a knowledge of the 
author's meaning. 



* Our authors, good and bad, critics and no critics, 
with few exceptions, write sometimes the objective case 
before the participle, and sometimes the possessive > under 
precisely the same circumstances. — Goold Brown's 
Gram, of Eng. Grammars, p. 643. 

We wish to say in reference to the above that a 
careful research has only served to convince us of the 
truthfulness of Mr. Brown's assertion, and while each 
form, no doubt, is sometimes used when the other would 
be preferable, still it is very hard to draw the line of 
distinction. 

In the above sentences the meaning expressed is very 
nearly if not quite the same in either case, but there is 
considerable difference in the meaning expressed by, 
There is no harm in children playing by the river, and, 
There is no harm in children's playing by the river. The 
first sentence asserts that the children are not harmful, 
while the second asserts that the act of their playing is 
not harmful. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. The teacher forbid them playing during the time 
set apart for the studying their lessons. 

2. After writing his letters he commenced writing of 
his composition. 

d. John says he seen his friends pass by. 

4. I seen him yesterday. 

5. We have saw much better times. 

6. They had just went to home. 

7. He sent a letter wrote on foolscap. 

8. The audience expressed the pleasure which they 
experienced in the hearing the lecture. 

9. Arnold done an act which will forever leave a blot 
upon his name. 

10. The water in the pail is froze solid. 

11. They refused doing so. 

12. To attempt proving that thing is right. 

* Exercises containing a general summary of the use 
of words, phVases, and clauses. 

Participles: Having done the work, he went away. 
Having been seen, he departed. 

Participles having' adverbial modifiers: Words once 
uttered, cannot be recalled. He remained sitting where 
we left him. Reading, without reflection,, does little 
good. 

Participles having objects: Saving time is lengthen- 
ing life. Expecting to, hear front you, I did not leave. 



* The teacher may require these sentences to be 
diagramed or analyzed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 109 

The man denies having taken the book. Having said 
what lie thought, he left. 

Participles having' complements : Being weary, I went 
home early. He, being a loafer, was not admitted. 
Having become chairman, he called the meeting to 
order. 

Participles modified by Possessives : Myra's leaving 
was much regretted. By his stealing, he brought dis- 
grace on his family. Pardon my bothering you. 

Participles used as the subject of a verb: Being 
criticised is unpleasant. Riding is good exercise. 

Participles used as the object of a verb: I enjoy sing- 
ing. Avoid reading trashy literature. He remembers 
having seen you. The man regrets having committed the 
deed. 

Participles used as complements of a verb : Seeing is 
believing. The trouble is getting started. Loving thy 
neighbor as thyself is keeping the commandments of the 
Bible. 

Participles used as the objects of prepositions : Tired 
of reading, he went to sleep. The trouble lies in tying 
the dog. The arm grows from being used. 

Participles used as adjective modifiers: Truth, 
crushed to earth, shall rise ag;iin. Having learned his 
lesson, he Went to sleep. 

Participles used with a noun or pronoun in an inde- 
pendent construction: The sun being risen, we pursued 
our journey. The rain having ceased, we went home. 
The music having stopped, we soon left. 

Participles used as adjective attributes: The vine 
lies withering on the ground. The man returned amazed. 
Sallie went away singing. 

Infinitives having adverbial modifiers: He tries to 
learn rapidly. We hope to see you when you return. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Infinitives having- objects : He came to see what lie 
wanted. Try to love your enemies. 

Infinitives having" complements : Mr. Whaley seems 
to be very studious. To be happy is a great blessing. 
Lorian desires to he president. 

Infinitives used as the subject of verbs : To err is 
human; to forgive, divine. To have a lovely disposition 
is a great blessing. 

Infinitives used as the object of verbs : We wish to 
go. Learn to control your temper. 

Infinitives used as the complements of verbs : Clay's 
desire is to he a good grammarian. Mr. Johnson seems 
to have been a smart man. 

Infinitives used as objects of participles : There is 
such a thing as trying to do too much. Learning to wait, 
is a difficult task. 

Infinitives used adjectively : Flowers have their time 
to bloom.' It is time for him to stop. 

Infinitives used adverbially: We went to see the city. 
It is not easy to do well. 

* Infinitives used appositively ; It is not pleasant to 
have so much rain. It is almost impossible to stop a 
malicious tongue. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write three sentences containing present participles. 

2. Write three sentences containing perfect participles. 

3. Write three sentences containing participles with ad- 
verbial modifiers. 4. Write two sentences containing 
participles used as complements. 5. Write two senten- 
ces using participles as objects of prepositions. 6 . Write 



* In these sentences, the infinitive is the real subject, 
and " it " is disposed of as being in apposition with the 
infinitive. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill 

two sentences using participles as adjectives. 7. Write 
four sentences using infinitives in apposition with intro- 
ductory " it." 8. Write two sentences containing 
infinitives with adverbial modifiers. 9. Write two sen- 
tences containing infinitives with objects. 10. Write two 
sentences containing infinitives used as objects of par- 
ticiples. 11. Write three sentences containing participles 
used in an independent construction. 12. Write four 
sentences containing participles limited by possessives. 
13. Write three sentences containing infinitive phrases 
used as the subjects of verbs. 14. Write three senten- 
ces containing infinitives followed by adjective compli- 
ments. 15. Write three sentences containing participial 
phrases used as objects of verbs. 

* Substantive Phrases: To love the good is a Christian 
trait. Knowing what to say secured him the position. 
He desires to visit the World's Fair. 

Phrases used adjectively : A desire to do good is noble. 
A love /or the beautiful is indicative of culture. 

Phrases used adverbially: Flowers bloom on the hill 
side. She will come next spring. I shall be glad to 
accompany you. 

t Substantive Clauses: Tell me vjhy you did it. Gal- 
lileo taught that the earth is round. They asked who he 
was. 

Clauses used adjectively : I have a friend whom I wish 
you to meet. She has a ring of which she may justly be 
proud. He dreamed of the hills over which he roamed in 
the days of his youth. 



* A substantive phrase does the work of a noun. 
t A substantive clause is a clause used to do the work 
of a noun. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Clauses used adverbially : He died where he fell. If 
you wish to succeed, persevere. 

Clauses used as subjects : When it ivas discovered is 
unknown. Whatever you want you shall have. How he 
did it remains a mystery. 

Independent constructions : The cyclone having passed, 
we continued our journey. That being lost, all is lost. 
He having departed, we soon fell asleep. By the way, 
I saw you yesterday. To tell the truth, I do not like her. 

Parenthetical expressions having independent con- 
struction: The boat leaps, as it were, from billow to 
billow. He knows, come what may, I shall be true to 
him. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write three sentences containing clauses used as 
subjects. 

2. Write three sentences containing clauses used as 
attributes. 

3. Write three sentences containing phrases used ad- 
jectively. 

4. Write three sentences containing phrases used 
adverbially. 

5. Write three sentences containing clauses used as 
objects. 

6. Write two sentences containing participial phrases 
used independently. 

7. Write two sentences containing parenthetical 
phrases used independently. 

8. Write two sentences containing elements inde- 
pendent by pleonasm. 

9. Write two sentences containing elements inde- 
pendent by address. 

10. Write your own definition of a complex sentence. 

11. Write your own definition of a compound sentence. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 



* General Exercises in Analysis. 

1. They shall, every man turn to his own people, and 
flee every one into his own land. 

In the first clause man is in apposition with they. 

In the second clause one is in apposition with they 
understood. 

If the pupils use diagrams, the teacher should insist 
upon full and lucid explanations, or the pupil may learn 
to diagram without having a clear idea of the exact rela- 
tions of many of the words. 

We are indebted principally to Holbrook, Harvey, 
Ehaub, and Reed & Kellogg for the great variety of 
sentences here produced. 

2. The best part of our knowledge is that which 
teaches us where knowledge leaves off and ignorance 
begins. 

That is an adjective, here used as a common noun, the 
attribute of the verb is* 

Which is a conjunctive pronoun, the subject of teaches, 
and stands for that. 

Us is the object of the preposition to understood. 

The direct objects of teaches are : knowledge leaves of 
where and ignorance begins where. 

Leaves off may be disposed of as a verb phrase, or off 
may be called an adverb. 



* The pupil should be required to analyze or diagram 
all of the above sentences. We have simply given a 
few words of explanation to assist the student on diffi- 
cult points and our remarks are in nowise intended as a 
full explanation of the sentences. 

8 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Three times seven are twenty-one. 

This sentence may be disposed of by any one of the 
following methods: 

(a) Three times of seven are twenty -one. 

(b) Three times of seven units are twenty-one units. 
(e) Seven units taken to the number of three times are 

twenty-one units. 

4. All this I heard as one half dead: but answer had 
I none to words so true, save tears for my sins. 

As may be disposed of as a preposition having person 
understood for its object, or a verb may be supplied and 
as will be a conjunctive adverb, thus: I heard as one 
half dead hears. 

Save is a preposition having tears for its object. 

All and this are adjectives modifying information 
understood. 

5. I dare do all that may become a man; who dares 
do more is none. 

The sign to of the infinitive is omitted after the verb 
dare. 

He understood is the subject of the verb is. 
Man and none are attributes. 

6. Our very hopes belied our fears, 
Our fears our hopes belied; 

We thought her dying when she slept, 

And sleeping when she died. 
Dying is a participle modifying her, and sleeping is a 
participle modifying her understood. 

She slept when is a clause used to modify thought. 
When is a conjunctive adverb. 

7. There are moments, I think, when the spirit 

receives. 
Whole volumes of thought on its unwritten leaves. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

There is an expletive or an introductory adverb. 

When the spirit receives, etc., is a clause used to 
modify moments. 

When is a conjunctive adverb and as here used is 
equivalent to in which. 

The pupil will please remember that a few conjunctive 
adverbs seem to have the force of conjunctive pronouns, 
and when such is the case the conjunctive adverb con- 
nects back to a noun. 

8. Let beeves and home-bred kine partake 
The sweets of Burn-mill meadow; 

The swan 1 on still St. Mary's lake 
Float 1 double, swan 2 and shadow. 
The sign to of the infinitive is omitted before float. 
Swan \_to~\ float, etc., is the object of let understood. 
Swan 2 and shadow are the objects of the preposition as 
understood, or they may be considered as in apposition 
with swan 1 . 

Double is an adjective used as the attribute of float. 

9. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. 

How they grow modifies consider. How is a conjunc- 
tive adverb. This sentence means Consider the lilies of 
the field with respect to the manner in which they grow. 

10. Yet man is born into trouble, as the sparks fly" 
upward. 

Yet is an introductory conjunction. 

As is a conjunctive adverb modifying fly. 

11. It is he 1 , even he 2 . 

Even may be considered an adverb modifying is; he 2 
being in apposition with he 1 , or even may be disposed of 
as a conjunction, the meaning being, It is he even [it is] 
he. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

12. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because 
it eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dykes. 

Because is a subordinate conjunction and the clause 
which it introduces modifies is protected. That is a con- 
junctive pronoun having frogs and worms for its ante- 
cedent. 

13. There is a class among us so conservative that they 
are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off the 
cobwebs. 

There is an expletive. 

Conservative modifies class, and so modifies conserva- 
tive. 

That is a subordinate conjunction and the clause which 
it introduces modifies so. 

The clause if you sweep, etc., modifies will come. Of 
is an adverb modifying sweep. 

14. He that allows himself to be a worm must not 
complain if he is trodden on. 

He is the subject of must complain. Himself is the 
subject of the infinitive to be. The clause if he is trod- 
den on modifies must complain. 

Is trodden on may be considered a verb phrase, or on 
may be disposed of as an adverb. 

15. We are as 1 near to heaven by sea as 2 by land. 
Near is the attribute of are. As 1 modifies near. 

As 2 is a subordinate conjunction, and the clause which 
it introduces, [we are near] by land, modifies as. 

16. Bear ye one another's burdens. 

Ye is the subject, and one is in apposition with ye. 

17. What made Cromwell a great man was his un- 
shaken reliance on God. 

" What" is the subject of " made." " Man " is a 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 117 



noun in the objective case, used as the attribute of the 
infinitive " to be " understood. " What made Cromwell 
a great man " is a clause used as the subject of " was." 

18. It is not always easy to make one's self just what 
one wishes to be. 

To make one's self just what one wishes to be is the 
subject of is, and it is in apposition with the above clause. 
Just modifies to make. 

What one ivishes to be is a clause used as the factitive 
of to make. 

What is a pronoun in the subjective case, used as the 
attribute of to be. Self is the object of to make. 

19. An angel, if a creature of a day, What would 
he be. 

Angel is in apposition with he. 

If he were the creature of a day modifies would be. 

i/isa subordinate conjunction. 

20. What matter how the night behaved? 
What matter how the north wind raved? 

What may be disposed of as an adverb modifying did 
matter, die? being understood, or it may be considered as 
an adjective modifying matter. Matter being used as 
the attribute of ivas understood. By the first method 
matter would be a verb, and by the serond it would be a 
noun. 

21. All were sealed with the seal which is never to be 
broken till the great day. 

Till is a preposition. Never modifies to be broken. 

22. Now blessing light on him that first invented 
sleep: it covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a 
cloak. 

JVow is an introductory adverb. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Over is an adverb modifying covers, and all modifies 
over. 

Thoughts and all (things) are in apposition with man. 
Like is a preposition. 

23. 1 want to be quiet, and to be let alone. 
Quiet and alone are adjectives used as attributes. 

24. Then here's to our boyhood, its gold and its gray ! 
The stars of its winter, the dews of its May ! 
And when we have done with our life-lasting toys, 
Dear Father, take care of thy children, the boys ! 

The first part of this sentence means Then here is [a 
toast] to our boyhood. 

Then is an introductory adverb. 

Here is an adverb modifying is. 

To is understood before, its gold, its gray, stars, and 
dews. 

When we have done, etc., modifies take. When is a 
conjunctive adverb. Care is a noun. 

Boys is in apposition with children. 

25. I consent to the constitution, because I expect no 
better, and because I am not sure it is not best. 

Sure is an adjective modified by the clause [that] it is 
not best. That is a subordinate conjunction understood. 
Best may be considered an adjective modifying a noun 
understood. 

26. We meet in joy, though we part in sorrow ; 
We part to-night, but we meet to-morrow. 

Though is a subordinate conjunction, and the clause 
which it introduces modifies meet. But is a co-ordinate 
conjunction. To-night and to-morrow are adverbs. 

The first line forms a complex sentence; the second a 
compound sentence. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

27. I never saw 1 a saw 2 saw 3 a saw 4 as that saw 5 
saws 6 a saw 7 . 

Saw 1 is a verb ; saw 2 is a noun ; [to] saw 3 is an infin- 
itive; saw i is a noun; saw b is a noun; saws 6 is a verb; 
and saw 1 is a noun. 

As is a conjunctive adverb, and the clause which it 
introduces modifies [to] saw 3 . 

As modifies saws 9 . 

28. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that 1 , that 2 
that 3 that 4 that 5 that 6 lady parsed, was not the that 7 that 8 
that 9 gentleman requested her to analyze. 

That 1 is a noun in apposition with word. That 2 is an 
expletive, and the clause which it introduces is the object 
of said. That 6 is an adjective modifying that*. That* 
is a noun, the subject of was. That 5 is a conjunctive 
pronoun the object of parsed. That 6 is an adjective 
modifying lady. That" 1 is a noun, the attribute of was. 
That* is a conjunctive pronoun, the object of to analyze. 

That 9 is an adjective modifying gentleman. The 
meaning would be plainer, if the sentence were written 
thus: The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that 
that that which that lady parsed, was not the that which 
that gentleman requested her to analyze. 

29. I feel my heart beating faster. 

"Beating" is an adjective used as an attribute of 
"to be" understood, and modifies " heart." " Faster" 
is an adverb modifying "beating." "Heart" is the 
object of " felt." 

30. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back 
of the eyeball and then spreads out. 

Then and out are adverbs modifying spreads. 

31. For what is worth in anything 

But so much money as 'twill bring? 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

For is an expletive. Worth is a noun used as the 
subject. 

In anything modifies worth. 

But is a preposition, having money for its object. 

As may be regarded as a conjunctive pronoun, having 
money for its antecedent. It is used as the object of 
will bring. 

32. I paid thirty-seven and a half cents for butter this 
morning. 

Thirty-seven and a half is an adjective phrase, modi- 
fying cents. 

33. Bird of the broad and sweeping wing, 

Thy home is high in heaven, 
Where the wide storms their banners fling, 
And the tempest-clouds are driven. 
Bird with its modifiers is used independently. 
High is an adjective used as the attribute of is. 
In heaven modifies high. 

The last two lines modify heaven, vjhere being a con- 
junctive adverb here used in the sense of a conjunctive- 
pronoun. Where modifies fling and are driven. 

34. It was now the Sabbath day, and a small congre- 
gation of about a hundred souls, had met for divine 
service, in a place more magnificent than any temple 
that human hands had ever built to Deity. 

flow modifies was. A hundred may be called an ad- 
jective phrase modifying souls. 

About modifies a hundred. 

Than is a subordinate conjunction and the clause in- 
troduced by it modifies more magnificent. More modi- 
fies magnificent. 

Temple is the subject of a suppressed verb. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 

35. Many a morning on the moorlands did we hear 
the copses ring. 

Many a modifies morning. 

Morning is the object of a preposition understood. 

The sign to of the infinitive is understood before ring, 

36. He that goes a 1 borrowing goes a 2 sorrowing. 

A l and a 2 are prepositions, having the words following 
them for their objects. 

37. Generally, also, a downright fact may be told in a 
plain way. Generally and also modify may be told. 

38. Life is as 1 tedious as 2 a twice told tale. 
Vexing the ears of a drowsy man. 

Tedious is used as the attribute of the verb is. As 1 
modifies tedious. As 2 is a conjunctive adverb, and the 
clause which it introduces modifies tale. As 2 modifies is 
understood. Vexing is a participle modifying tale. 

39. Heaven is not gained at a single bound ; 
But we build the ladder by which we rise 
From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies, 
And we mount to its summit round 1 by round. 2 

Rise is modified by the phrases by which, from earth, 
and to skies. Mount is modified by to summit and [with] 
round. 

Round 1 is modified by the phrase by round. 2 

40. At midnight in his guarded tent, 

The turk was dreaming of the hour, 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 
At midnight, in tent, and of hour modify was dreaming. 
The clause introduced by when modifies hour, When 
being a conjunctive adverb, and as here used is equiva- 
lent to at which, Greece is modified by the phrase 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

[with] knee. Knee is modified by the participle bent. 
When modifies should tremble. 



Exercises for Analysis. 

1. Let your communications be yea, yea, and nay, 
nay. 

2. Aptitude for business is not power of reason. 

3. The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of 
happiness. 

4. A desire for knowledge is natural to the mind of 
man. 

5. He who masters his possessions conquers his 
greatest enemies. 

6. All that a man has will he give for his life. 

7. John, kick the cat from under the table. 

8. A teamster drove his horses too far into the river, 
and in so doing he drowned them. 

9. Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 

Dream of fighting fields no more. — Scott. 

10. The way was long, the wind was cold, 

the minstrel was infirm and old. — Scott. 

11. One ounce of gold is worth sixteen ounces of 
silver. 

12. They walk nearly across the bridge. 

13. To reveal secrets or betray one's friends, is con- 
temptible perfidy. 

14. Sometimes her narrow kitchen walls 
Stretched away into stately halls. — Whittier. 

15. Will you walk into my parlor, said the spider to 
the fly? 

16. Across the heath the owlet flew, 
And screamed alon<r the blast. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 

17. Full many a promise rashly made 

Is fated ne'er to be redeemed ; 
Full many a duty long delayed, 
Has lost to us a friend esteemed. 

18. Thus many a sad to-morrow came and went. 

19. He thought to learn to study to be to learn to 
think. 

20. We one day descried some shapeless object float- 
ing at a distance. 

21. A distinction ought to be made between fame and 
true honor. 

22. Level spread the lake before him. 

24. Refinement of mind and clearness of thinking 
usually result from grammatical studies. 

24. And the night shall be filled with music, 

And the cares that infest the day, 
Shall fold their tents like the Arabs 
And as quietly steal away. 

25. Those who provide not for want, will find trouble. 

26. How sweetly doth the moon beams smile, 
To-night upon yon leafy isle. 

27. The twilight hours like birds flit by. 

28. The tongue is like a race-horse which runs the 
faster the less weight it carries. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

Criticise the following sentences, making corrections 
when necessary : 

1. I stopped but you were not at home. 

2. I went a long ways yesterday. 

3. Has the cattle been fed? 

4. These kinds of cherries are good. 

5. Them molasses are very fine. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. I took it to be her. 

7. They arrived safely. 

8. John and I will go. 

9. Him and I are old friends. 

10. I thought it was them. 

11. The horse, saddle and bridle were sold for one 
hundred dollars. 

12. All who heard him, spoke well of him. 

13. Three hundred and sixty- five days makes a year. 

14. He is doing nice. 

15. She looks beautifully. 

16. That problem is very easy solved. 

17. James and I went to the city. 

18. Try and learn your lessons. 

19. Some one has took my knife. 

20. The thought is not as clearly expressed as it might 
be. 

21. Our nation's safety rests upon the sobriety of its 
youth. 

22. He is taller than her. 

23. The rose smells sweet. 

24. This is a remarkable pretty flower. 

25. I have saw him twice. 

26. He is the most funniest boy I have ever saw. 

27. He or I is going to town. 

28. We were setting on a log. 

29. The sun is setting. 

30. I will go to town to-morrow. 

31. The boy has gone with the jailer. 

32. I seed him as I came home. 

33. Birds flees through the air. 

34. Let the book lay on the table and come set down. 

35. I know the page where the mistake may be found. 

36. I don't know that I will go. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 

37. The pretty and ugly boy came to school. 

38. I was very pleased to see you. 

39. He is the most richest man I ever saw. 

40. I never thought of it being her. 

41. I knowed that it was him, for I seen him when he 
done it. 

42. I feel that I cannot learn to write. 

43. We sang a new hymn which we had never sang 
before. 

44: Don't say nothing about it. 

45. It is difficult to clearly understand him. 

46. I did not say he is as good looking as his brother. 

47. Books is a noun. 

48. It was him. 

49. A fine lot of umbrellas for sale by Brown & Jones 
having nicely carved ivory heads. 

50. Capital, as well as men, were needed. 

51. This here book is very interesting. 

52. You and he stole the horse. 

53. Here are the persons and things which we sent for. 

54. Each of you shall have your part. 

55. I didn't know the earth was round. 
56~ The water is ten foot deep. 

57. They all come but him. 

58. There comes the children. 

59. I shall see whether I can go or not. 

60. One of you are wrong. 

61. Let each one try to do his best. 

62. If you and me go the rest will follow. 

63. If I were you I would not care. 

64. Annie is the prettiest of her sisters. 

65. It must be them. 

66. It was me whom you saw. 

67. Day's and Martin's blacking for sale here. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

68. William reads rapidly. 

69. She intends to break up housekeeping. 

70. She spoke to James and I. 

71. Take another example. 

72. Do not let them know who I am. 

73. Neither John nor James are remarkable for their 
talent. 

74. No one knows better how to do it than him. 

75. Who is at the door? Me. 

76. The piece was much better recited by her than he. 

77. The estate was to be equally divided between the 
six sons. 

78. It certainly could not have been him. 

79. This is the more better way to solve that problem. 

80. Sallie and Mary are at home. 

81. Neither the general nor his men were aware of 
their danger. 

82. Having did the work faithfully he was rewarded. 

83. I have saw him several time. 

84. Who did you apply to? 

85. The scissors is too large. 

86. Us having returned they were happy. 

87. These kind of oranges grow in Florida. 

88. I, you, and John will go. 

89. I made a very pleasant call this afternoon. 

90. I seen her yesterday. 

91. John is not so tall as him. 

92. I will try to call on you this afternoon. 

93. I shall be glad to see you at any time at which you 
may find it convenient to come. 

94. Passengers are requested to not smoke in this 
car. 

95. This is the Ladies entrance. 

96. These sort of sentences need correcting. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 



97. He doesn't know nothing. 

98. I would of gone, if he had of come. 

99. They have came. 

100. Those boys were farther down the road than us. 

101. She sat by John and I. 

102. A discussion arose between him and I as to who 
should have the prize. 

103. A mule lost by a man with closely sheared mane 
and one lopped ear. 

104. The best kind of a shade tree is the maple. 

105. Each of you shall have your money. 

106. We was there. 

107. The ablest man who ever lived would not solve 
that problem. 

108. Some deer was caught. 

109. The number of students are increasing yearly. 

110. Every chair, berth, and sofa were occupied. 

111. Caesar, as well as Cicero, were admired for their 
eloquence. 

112. Every hour and everyday have their appropriate 
duties. 

113. I intended to have .gone last week. 

114. To be or not to be that is the question. 

115. I seen the fire. 

116. Has the train went by? 

117. Beware of him who you know to be treacherous. 

118. Wars occurred in Lincoln and Polk's adminis- 
trations. 

119. The pupil should be taught to carefully spell the 
words. 

120. The farm was to be equally divided between the 
three boys. 

121. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well 
written. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

122. We told him to sit the cup by the bucket and set 
down. 

123. This here book is not the one which I want. 

124. We are doing fine in our new position. 

125. Some one has stole my dog. 

126. The witness seen the thief to enter the barn. 

127. Neither despise the poor nor envy the rich. 

128. They did not think of its being me. 

129. Read the fourth and fifth page. 

130. Every one must answer for themselves. 

131. He is the wisest which lives the most nobly. 

132. Every one should have her life insured. 

133. I do not know whom they are. 

134. I think I should have gone. 

135. 1 knew it to be him. 

136. Who, who knew the circumstances, could remain 
unmoved? 

137. He put his watch in his pocket. 

138. Maud wrote very rapidly. 

139. Will you permit him and I to stay? 

140. Florence is the most beautiful of her sisters. 

141. Where was you? 

142. Many songs were sung. 

143. Him being present, I am happy. 

144. The army selected their winter quarters. 

145. Rudeness of manners disgust us. 

146. One with nine makes ten. 

147. Are you sure that it was me? 

148. His actions, as well as his speech, were funny. 

149. No one knows better than he. 

150. Few women are smarter than her. 

151. Partnership belongs to that class of business re- 
lations in which one or more parties is represented and 
bound by the acts of another. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 

152. This is the man whom we think deserved the 
prize. 

153. Their being but a small body, no recognition was 
•given them. 

154. He who encounters difficulties at every turn, we 
should surely pity. 

155. Help the poor, disabled soldiers, they who so 
-much need your assistance. 

156. Who do you suppose her to be? 

157. It matters not whom your companions may be, 
their influence has its effect upon you. 

158. The speaker was not the man whom he seemed 
to be. 

159. If the merchant or his agent indorsed the draft, 
tbey should be held responsible. 

160. It could not have been him which the speaker 
intended to reprove. 

161. Washington was loved more than any president 
of the United States. 

162. The man who resolves to patiently wait for pro- 
motion will surely merit it. 

163. Punishing of children is sometimes necessary. 

164. The Latin language was spoke by some of our 
most learned philosophers. 

165. I would have spoke sooner, but I did not recog- 
nize him. 

166. He could never after all his boasting prove 
nothing. 

167. The admission was previously to the trial. 

168. Common carriers are bound to transport goods 
safe. 

169. Frank seldom or ever fails to perfectly recite. 

170. Among such good friends as you two are no 
misunderstandings should arise. 

9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

171. I passed a man crying with one eye in the street. 

172. Who did he refer to in his remarks? 

173. Shun him who you know to be two-faced. 

174. The effect of him doing that was felt by the 
entire community. 

175. The servant seen the rogue to enter the kitchen. 

176. Neither I nor he is prepared to answer. 

177. It has recently been discovered that there were 
coal mines in this vicinity. 

178. I know one instance where casting out nines will 
not disclose the mistakes in addition. 

179. Who who knew the parties and their condition 
could blame them. 

180. We gave him the best which we had. 

181. This few days lost caused the defeat of the Con- 
federate army. 

182. All things which impede my progress shall be 
removed. 

183. Whomsoever will, may be honored by his fellow 
men. 

184. The lady, her who danced so gracefully, will 
come upon the next train. 

185. Washington and Lincoln's administrations were 
probably the most eventful of any in the history of our 
nation. 

186. The property consists of forty-five acres of which 
ten is under cultivation. 

187. After traveling four days through the woods we 
went a three days journey across the plains. 

188. James' cousin's friend's house is in sight. 

189. The man had a short and long cane. 

190. The man which owns the farm is my brother. 

191. Let some more commoner expression be used. 

192. I bought the hat at my friend's Smith's store. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 



193. The procession at Judge Orton's funeral was 
very fine and nearly two mlies in length, as was the 
beautiful prayer of the Rev. Dr. Swing from Chicago. 

194. The following verses were written by a young 
man who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement. 

195. A man dug a well with a Roman nose. 

196. Either James or John, one of them, will come. 

197. Gentlemen's material made up and waited on at 
their own homes. — Tailor's Advertisement. 

198. R. C. begs to apologize for not acknowledging P. 
O. order at the time, but was from home and thus got 
delayed, misplaced, and forgotten. 

199. Lost, a cow belonging to an old woman, with 
brass knobs on her horns. 

200. Lost by a poor lad tied up in a brown paper with 
a white string a German flute with an overcoat and 
several other articles of wearing apparel. 

APPENDIX. 

Under this head we give a number of peculiar sen- 
tences, some of which have often caused much comment 
and discussion. 

The student will please bear in mind that the English 
language is almost, but not quite, a " grammarless 
tongue," and in disposing of these sentences we have 
made an attempt to deal with them as we find them, and 
not as they might have been had our language been 
constructed upon a model of Greek or Latin. 

The pupil will also please remember that there are 
many expressions in our language the use of which may 
be sufficiently warranted for conversational style, but at 
present we would not advise him to engraft them into 
manuscript. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Notes on Common Expressions. 

1. The following expressions are often used in con- 
versational style : 

It is me. That's him. It is her. 

In these sentences the objective forms me, him, and 
her, are used by *enallage for the subjective forms, /, 
he, and she. 

2. AngeT s footsteps, Me thinks I hear them. 

In the above sentence the objective me is used by 
enallage for the subjective form I. It is the subject of 
the verb thinks. 

Ah me! Dear me! 



* Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or one 
form for another. 

We would not advise the pupil to use the above 
expressions, but when they are used they seem not 
altogether unsupported by authority. 

Notice the following comments upon them by standard 
authors: 

Careless or inaccurate speakers often use such ex- 
pressions as, It is them; It was us; If it were her; and 
in the case of It is me, the practice has become so 
common that it is even regarded as good English by 
respectable authorities. — Essentials of Eng. Grammar, 
p. 160, by W. D. Whitney of Yale College. 

Object by enallage; for the nominative in the predi- 
cate after an intransitive verb ; as, If 1 were him; It is 
me; That's him, etc. 

This use is only warranted in conversational style. — 
Holbrookes New Eng. Gram, p., 66. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

Here me is used in the independent case by exclama- 
tion. 

It is used for the subjective form. 

3. In such expressions as, That nose of yours; That 
chin of his; etc., the words yours and his are in the 
objective case. They are used by enallage for the 
objective forms you and him. 

The use of such sentences as the above is criticised by 
some grammarians. 

4. The following is a list of the most common con- 
tractions employed in conversational style: Can't, 
don't, isn't, hasn't, haven't, doesn't, couldn't, woiddn't, 
shouldn't, shan't, * won't, and aren't. 

t A' n't is correctly used for am not in the first person 
singular, but even here it is better to say I'm not instead 
of I a'n't. 

5. Can means to be able, to have the power to do or 
perform a certain act. May is used to express liberty 
or permission. 

If you wish to ask permission of me to leave the room, 
you should not say •' Can I leave the room,' 9 but " May 
1 leave the room? 9 ' If you ask me " Can I leave the 
room," you inquire of me as to your ability to perform 
this act, but if you ask me " May Heave the room,' 9 you 
are asking my consent to perform this act. We cannot 
be too careful in the use of these little words. 

6. Peel or peeling means the skin or the rind; as, an 
apple peel; an apple peeling. The latter expression is 



* Won't though used for will not is properly a contrac- 
tion of woll not. 

t A'n't is also written an't and ain't. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sometimes criticised, but Worcester's Dictionary has 
peeling defined thus: Peeling, n. Peel; skin; hide. 

7. The masculine of laundress is laundry-man. Seam- 
stress seems to have no masculine. 

8. In regard to the use of the expressions If I am not 
mistaken, and If I mistake not, there seems to he no well 
defined line. According to the strict meaning of the 
terms there may be a difference in the meaning expressed, 
but If lam not mistaken seems to have sufficient authority 
to warrant its use even when the speaker wishes to state 
that he makes a mistake or that he errs. 

We quote the following from a standard dictionary : 
Mistaken or to be mistaken, is often used in a peculiar 
manner. In one application, it signifies to be in error, 
or to be wrong ; but in another application, it signifies to 
be misunderstood or misconceived ; as, "I am mistaken," 
61 He is mistaken," i. e. wrong in judgment or opinion : — 
but, " My opinion, or my remark, is mistaken;", implies 
that I am mistaken, or misunderstood, by my hearers. 
Richardson says, " To be mistaken has a twofold applica- 
cation: — " 1 . I am mistaken, — i. e. taken, appre- 
hended, wrongly, erroneously; I am misapprehended, 
misunderstood. 

"2. I am mistaken,— i. e., taken, led, drawn the 
wrong course or path, astray. I am misled, misguided, 
betrayed : and consequently I go wrong or astray, I err, 
I misapprehend." — Worcester' s Dictionary, p. 918. 

9. According to the true meaning of the words which 
we use, we should say a sitting lien and not a setting hen. 

The simple fact that some one sets the hen, does not 
give us authority to call her a setting hen. 
The hen herself, sits and she is a sitting hen. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 

The expression the setting hen is probably correct from 
usage but not otherwise. 

We append the following comments from distinguished 
philologists: 

Sitting hen is undoubtedly the right form. — E. A. 
Allen , Prof, of English , University of Mo. 

The use of the verb set for sit in such expressions as, 
the hen is setting on thirteen eggs; & setting hen, etc., 
although colloquially common, and sometimes tolerated 
in serious writing, is not to be approved. — Webster's 
International Dictionary, p. 1317. 

According to Worcester the sitting hen is correct, but 
according to popular usage the setting hen is correct. — 
Alfred Holbrook, Pres. National Normal University, 
Lebanon, O. 

Although to speak of a hen as " setting " is far from 
uncommon, it is by no means good English. — W. D. 
Whitney, Prof, of Languages, Yale College. 

10. "You all." 

This expression is used in some sections of the country 
in such a manner that its use has developed into a collo- 
quialism. "You" is either singular or plural, and 
ordinarily means as much as " you all." When, how- 
ever, "all" is used after "you" for the sake of 
emphasis, its use seems to be warranted by sufficient 
authority to render it perfectly unobjectionable. We 
append the following comments from Prof. Briggs: 

You all seems perfectly good English. All of you is 
equally good. — L. B. R. Briggs, Prof, of Eng. Har- 
vard University. 

11. Both expressions To-morrow is Tuesday and To- 
morrow will be Tuesday seem to be sanctioned by suffi- 
cient authority. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We append the following comments from Butler's 
Revised Grammar, p. 240, note 13: 

Should we say "To-morrow is Wednesday " or " To- 
morrow will be Wednesday? " 

As we wish to express an abstract truth rather than a 
future event, the first form seems preferable. Shakes- 
peare uses this form: "Wednesday^ to-morrow." — 
Borneo and Juliet. " To-morrow is the wedding-day." — 
Taming of the shrew. " Is not to-morrow, boy, the 
ides of March?" — Julius Ccesar. "To-morrow i& 
the joyful day, Audrey." — As You Like It. " To-mor- 
row is St. Crispian." — Henry V. " To-morrow is her 
birthday." — Pericles. 

12. In many sentences when the noun is pluralized one- 
of the adjectives may be omitted; as, Read the first and 
the second chapter, may also be correctly written: Read 
the first and second chapters. 

13. Says I and thinks I may not be elegant expres- 
sions, but when used in such constructions as, iVo, no> 
says I; We agree, says they, etc., they seem at least ta 
have the sanction of modern usage, and we believe that 
any one that cares to take the trouble to investigate the 
Anglo-Saxon language will be convinced that those who 
are inclined to use the above expressions do not commit 
such error as some have supposed. 

14. With respect to the use of the title Miss> 
when two or more persons of the same name are ad- 
dressed, there seems to be considerable diversity of 
opinion. Most grammarians prefer pluralizing the name ; 
thus : — The Miss Thompsons ; The Miss Bouldins, but 
the rules of society seem to favor pluralizing the title : 
thus : — The Misses Thompson ; The Misses Bouldin. It 
is, perhaps, more nearly in accordance with popular 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 

usage to pluralize the name in conversation and to plur- 
alize the title in composition or in addressing letters. In 
addressing two or more young ladies of different names 
the title should be pluralized. 

15. Mrs. should be pronounced missis. We refer 
those who wish further information on this subject to 
Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries. 

16. I feel badly. 

This expression, although sanctioned by some author- 
ities, would be better thus : " I feel bad." We evidently 
wish to describe the condition of the subject and to do 
so should use an adjective and not an adverb. The 
meaning would be more accurately expressed by the 
expression : "I am not feeling well." 

17. Each other and one another. In the use of 
these expressions each other is usually employed when 
referring to two individuals and one another when refer- 
ring to more than two. Butler says, however, that 
there is no good authority for these restrictions, and that 
each other and one another are applied to either two or 
more. Johnson says, " To each the correspondent is 
other whether it be used of two or a greater number." 

18. Mutual Friend. This expression, though subjected 
to severe criticisms, seems to be very good English, and 
it is by no means devoid of use among many writers who 
have won considerable reputation for their careful study 
of philology. We append the following comments: 

Mutual is usually and properly applied to two persons, 
or their intercourse with each other; common to more 
than two. Mutual friends ; common interests or country. 
— Worcester's Dictionary, p. 947. 

The use of mutual as synonymous with common i& 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



inconsistent with the idea of interchange, or reciprocal 
relation, which properly belongs to it ; but the word has 
been so used by many writers of high authority. The 
present tendency is toward a careful discrimination. — 
Webster's International Dictionary, p. 958. 

I think mutual friend is sanctioned by Webster's new 
Dictionary with some reserve. — Noali Porter, LL.D., 
Pres. of Yale College. 

19. Goose, meaning a tailor's smoothing iron, seems 
to have no plural, and when it is necessary to use the 
plural, according to Dr. Noah Porter it may be written 
smoothing irons. 

20. Complexioned. Do not say she is dark complected, 
or he is light complected. 

The proper expressions are, She is dark complexioned, 
or He is light complexioned. 

21. The il ed" should be accented in the following 
words, when used as adjectives, namely ; Beloved, cursed, 
aged, learned, and loinged, and should be marked with 
the grave accent, thus Learned. 

It was once accented in many other words, but all 
except the above named have been changed. 

22. Betwixt and between strictly speaking apply to 
two objects only. But in many instances they may be 
correctly used when reference is made to a number of 
things, as the following sentences will illustrate : 

*' A choice betweentwo or more alternatives." — Mul- 
ligan. " Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of 
her ivory neck." — Bryant. "Between two or more 
authors different readers will differ." — Campbell. 

23. Either is properly used for one of two things, but 
it is often used in the sense of anyone to mean one of 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 

several; as, If from a point within a triangle two straight 
lines are drawn to the extremities of either side, etc. — 
Loomis's Geom., Bk. 1, Prop. IX. 

Scarce a palm of ground could be gotten by either of 
the three. — Bacon. There have been three famous 
talkers in Great Britain, either of whom would illustrate 
what I say about dogmatists. — Holmes. 

Few writers hesitate to use either in what is called a 
triple alternative; such as, We must either stay where 
we are, proceed, or recede. — Latham. Either is some- 
times used in the sense of each to indicate both of two ; 
as, His flowing hair in curls on either cheek played. — 
Milton. 

On either side . . . was there the tree of life. — Rev. 
XXII., 2. 

24. Neither by strict meaning applies to one of two 
objects only; yet, Dr. Webster says, that by usage it 
is applicable to any number referring to individuals 
separately considered. 

25. We are glad to notice that at present the tendency 
is to drop the hyphen from compound words in general 
use. We can give no definite rules as to when the 
hyphen should be used and when it should be omitted; 
the only way to learn this is by consulting the latest 
dictionary whenever you are the least doubtful. The 
following are a few compound words in which the hyphen 
has recently been omitted : bookkeeping, shorthand, 
typewriting, typewriter, schoolboy, schoolgirl, schoolhouse, 
schoolmaster, schoolmate, doorcase, doorkeeper, door- 
way, doornail, doorplate, bookbinder, bookkeeper, book- 
mark, bookcase, bookseller, toothbrush, toothpick, 
bedtime, clothesline, clothespress, woodwork, wool- 
grower, billhead, airpump, airhole, bareheaded, 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

grapevine, homemade, hotbed, birdcage, blackmail, 
blacks/take, coffeehouse, coffeepot, courtyard, dogday, 
footprint, football, forcepump, fishhook, flagstaff, 
bloodhound, flytrap. 

26. Please. Such sentences as, Please excuse me, and 
Please bring me a glass of water, are sanctioned by good 
authority, notwithstanding the fact that many contend 
that the sign " to " is improperly omitted before the 
infinitive, and that they should be, Please to excuse me, 
and Please to bring me a glass of water. 

27. The expressions 4 times 5 are 20, and 4 times 5 
is 20, are both warranted by sufficient authority. 

When expanded they read : 4 taken to the extent of 
5 times is 20, or 4 times of 5 are 20. 

28. Such expressions as, You had better go, You had 
better stay, etc., are warranted by good usage. It would 
be more in harmony with the rules of grammar, how- 
ever, to use would instead of had. 

29. The plural number and the possessive singular of 
letters, figures, and characters, are alike in form, both 
being formed by the annexation of the 9 s thus, plural 
4's possessive, singular, 4's. 

The possessive plural'is formed by annexing an apos- 
trophe to the plural, thus 4V. 

30. It is more elegant to say the train had left before 
we arrived, than to say, the train left before we arrived. 

Had left expresses time more remote than expressed 
by left. Thus making it a better verb to use in the 
sentence with arrived. 

31. The word whether implies a selection, and should 
not be used for if after the verbs doubt, fear, etc. I 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 141 

doubt whether he will come, should be, I doubt if he will 
come. 

32. Farther and further. In the use of these words 
many contend that further should be used when some- 
thing additional is meant, and that farther should be used 
when referring to distance. This distinction, however, 
is not usually observed and it seems to make but little 
difference which form is used. It may not be the best 
usage to write If you desire any farther information^ but 
further may certainly be correctly used when referring 
to something additional or to distance. 

33. Their is sometimes used to represent nouns or 
pronouns in the singular connected by or or nor ; as, Not 
on outward claims could he or she build their pretensions 
to please. 

No boy or girl should whisper to their neighbor. In 
these sentences the pronoun does not agree with its 
antecedent in number, but Mr. Harvey among others has 
sanctioned its use. 

34. The expression that far, although used for so far, 
seems to have the sanction of, at least, popular usage. 
That when used in such expressions as the above is an 
adverb. 

35. When two or more nouns are connected so as to 
denote but one thing they should have the same form of 
verb as a singular noun ; as, A hue and cry was raised; 
Bread and butter is excellent food . 

36. Hanged is preferable to hung when reference is 
had to death or execution by suspension, and it is more 
common; but in instances other than this hung seems 
to be the form most commonly employed. 



142 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



37. Henry's and John's books. With regard to 
writing such expressions as this, there seems to be no 
generally accepted method, and when we wish to speak 
of two books one of which belongs to Henry and the 
other to John, it may be written Henry's and John's 
boohs or Henry's and John's booh. 

We call attention to the following comments from two 
grammarians of, perhaps, equal ability, but antithetic 
opinions : 

If a noun is made plural when it is expressed, it will 
also be plural when it is implied. It is good English to 
say, " & father's or mother's sisters are aunts;" hurt the 
meaning is " A father's sisters or a mother's sisters are 
aunts." 

But a recent school critic teaches differently, thus: 
" When different things of the same name belong to 
different possessors, the sign should be annexed to each; 
as Adams', Davies' , and Perhins' Arithmetics; i. e., 
three different boohs." Here the example is fictitious, 
and has almost as many errors as words. It would be 
much better English to say, "Adams's, Davies's, and 
Perhins's Arithmetic. — Goold Brown's Gram, of Eng. 
Grammars, p. 510. 

Goold Brown and others maintain that such expressions 
as " Johnson's and Richardson's Dictionaries" are in- 
correct, because we cannot say, " Johnson's Dictionaries 
and Richardson's Dictionaries." Of course we do not 
say, *' Johnson's Dictionaries ," for the very«good reason 
that we are thinking of but one thing ; but we do 
say, " Johnson's and Richardson's Dictionaries for the 
equally good reason that we are thinking of two things. 
We say, "The Old and New Testaments, because we 
are thinking of two Testaments. A person holding in 
his hand a knife belonging to John and another knife 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 143 

belonging to William would hardly venture to say, 
" These are John's and William's knife," even though 
he might have Brown's Grammar of English Grammars 
open before him. 

The attempt to better the English by using the form 
''Johnson's Dictionary and Richardson's" is a failure; 
for this form is stiff and pedantic. A speaker may say, 
" I have consulted Johnson's Dictionary," and then add, 
" and Richardson's," as the result of a second thought; 
but if he sets out to mention both, this form is contrary 
to the English idiom. — Butler's Revised Grammar, p. 
188. 

38. Each of you shall have your money. 

Your in this sentence should be Iris. The antecedent 
of the pronoun your is each and not you. 

39. Reared seems to be preferable to raised when 
speaking of persons and, perhaps, the reverse is true 
when speaking of live stock; as, He was reared in Mis- 
souri; Those cattle were raised in Texas. 

In some parts of the United States raised is commonly 
applied to rearing or bringing up children: as, " I was 
raised, as they say in Virginia, among the mountains of 
the North." — Paulding. "In the place in which he 
was raised." — Jefferson. 

40. In such expressions as the then ministry and the 
above discourse, the words then and above are adjectives. 
These expressions, though sometimes criticised, seem 
to be good English. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The following list of irregular verbs has been pre- 
pared with great care, and strictly in accordance with 



144 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



the usages laid down in Webster's International Diction- 
ary. When a verb has more than one form for its past 
tense and perfect participle we have written the forms 
in the order in which they are preferred. 



List of Irregular Verbs. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PART. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode, 


Am or be, 


was, 


been, 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke or awaked, 


awaked or awoke. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


born. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beat or beaten. 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


begot, 


begot or begotten. 


Begin, 


began or begun, 


began or begun. 


Begird, 


begirt or begirded, 


begirt. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Belay, 


belaid or belayed, 


belaid or belayed. 


Bend, 


bended or bent, 


bended or bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved or bereft, 


bereaved or bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


beset. 


Bespeak, 


bespoke, 


bespoke or bespoken. 


Bespit, 


bespit, 


bespit or bespitten. 


Bespread, 


bespread, 


bespread. 


Bestrew, 


bestrewed, 


bestrewed or bestrown . 


Bestick, 


bestuck, 


bestuck. 


Bestride, 


bestrode, 


bestridden, bestride or 
bestrode. 


Bet, 


bet or betted, 


bet or betted. 


Betake , 


betook, 


betaken. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



145 



PRESENT. 


FAST. 


PAST PART. 


Bethink, 


bethought, 


bethought. 


Bethump, 


bethumped or 


bethumped or 




bethumpt, 


bethumpt. 


Be weep, 


bewept, 


bewept. 


Bid, 


bade or bid, 


bidden or bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blend, 


blended or blent, 


blended or blent. 


Bless, 


blessed or blest, 


blessed or blest. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown, 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Burn, 


burned or burnt, 


burned or burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught or catched, 


caught or catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden or chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, 


cleft, 


cleft, cleaved or 
cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed or clad, 


clothed or clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept . 


Crow, 


crew or crowed, 


crowed. 


Curse , 


cursed or curst, 


cursed o r curst. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, 


durst or dared, 


dared. 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PART. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Dig, 
Dive, 


dug or digged, 
dived or dove, 


dug or digged, 
dived or dove. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed or dreamt, 


dreamed or dreamt. 


Dress, 


dressed or drest, 


dressed or drest. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk or drunken. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelled or dwelt, 


dwelled or dwelt. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Engird, 


engirded or engirt, 


engirded or engirt. 


Engrave, 


engraved, 


engraved or engraven. 

& to 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 


flung, 

flew, 

forbore, 


flung, 
flown, 
forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten or forgot. 

to to 


Forgive, 


forgave, 


forgiven. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Geld, 

Get, 

Gild, 


gelded or gelt, 

got, 

gilded or gilt, 


gelded or gelt. 

got. 

gilded or gilt. 


Gird, 


girt or girded, 


girt or girded. 

& to 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 

to 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven or graved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



147 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 






PAST PART. 


Grind, 


ground, 






ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 






grown. 


Hang, 


hanged 


or 


hung, 


hanged or hung. 


Have, 


had, 






had. 


Hear, 


heard, 






heard. 


Heave, 


heaved 


or 


hove, 


heaved, hoveorhoven. 


Hew, 


hewed, 






hewed or hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 






hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 






hit. 


Hold, 


held, 






held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 






hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 






kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt 01 


•k 


neeled, 


knelt or kneeled. 


Knit, 


knit or 


knitted, 


knit or knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 






known, 


Lade, 


laded, 






laded or laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 






laid. 


Lead, 


led, 






led. 


Lean, 


leaned < 


[>r 


leant. 


leaned or leant. 


Leap, 


leaped 


or 


leapt, 


leaped or leapt. 


Learn, 


learned 


01 


[• learnt, 


learned or learnt. 


Leave, 


left, 






left. 


Lend, 


lent, 






lent. 


Let, 


let, 






let. 


Lie, 


lay, 






lain. 


Lie, 


lied, 






lied. 


Light, 


lighted 


or 


lit, 


lighted or lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 






lost. 


Make, 


made, 






made. 


Mean, 


meant, 






meant. 


Meet, 


met, 






met. 


Misgive, 


misgave, 




misgiven. 


Mislead, 


misled, 






misled. 



148 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PART. 


Misspend, 


misspent, 


misspent. 


Mow 


mowed, 


mowed or mown. 


Outdo, 


outdid, 


outdone. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pen, 


penned or pent, 


penned or pent. 


Pat, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit or quitted, 


quit or quitted. 


Eap, 


rapped or rapt, 


rapped or rapt. 


Kead, 


read, 


read . 


Reave, 


reaved or reft, 


reaved or reft. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Repay, 


repaid, 


repaid. 


Rid, 


rid or ridded, 


rid or ridded. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang or rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived or riven. 


Run, 


ran or run, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed or sawn. • 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed or sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped or shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved or shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared or shore, 


sheared or shorn. 


Shed, 


shed , 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, 


shone. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



149 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PART. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown or showed. 


Shred, 


shred or shredded, 


shred or shredded. 


Shrink, 


shrank or shrunk, 


shrunk or shrunken. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung or sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk or sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden or slid. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit or slitted, 


slit or slitted. 


Smell, 


smelJed or smelt, 


smelled or smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown or sowed. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped or speeded, 


sped or speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled or spelt, 


spelled or spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled or spilt, 


spilled or spilt. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun, 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


Split, 


split or splitted, 


split or splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled or spoilt, 


spoiled or spoilt. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang or sprung, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave, 


staved or stove, 


staved or stove. 


Stay, 


stayed or staid, 


stayed or staid. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 



150 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


PRESENT. 


PAST. 




PAST PART. 


Sting, 
Stink, 


stung, 
stunk or i 


stank, 


stung, 
stunk. 


Strew, 


strewed, 




strewed or strewn. 


Stride, 


strode, 




stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 




struck or stricken. 


String, 
Strive, 


strung, 
strove, 




strung or stringed, 
striven or strove. 


Strow, 


strowed, 




strown or strowed. 


Swear, 


swore, 




sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat or i 


sweated, 


sweat or sweated. 


Sweep, 
Swell, 


swept, 
swelled, 




swept. 

swelled or swollen. 


Swim, 


swam or 


swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 
Take, 


swung, 
took, 




swung, 
taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 




taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 




torn. 


Tell, 


told, 




told. 


Think, 


thought, 




thought. 


Thrive, 


throve 01 


■ thrived, 


thrived or thriven 


Throw, 


threw, 




thrown. 


Thrust, 
Tread, 


thrust, 
trod, 




thrust, 
trodden or trod. 


Unbind, 


unbound 


> 


unbound. 


Undo, 
Wake, 


undid, 
waked 01 


• woke, 


undone, 
waked or woke. 


Wear, 


wore, 




worn. 


Weave, 


wove or 


weaved, 


woven, wove or 
weaved. 


Wed, 


wedded, 




wedded or wed. 


Weep, 
Wet, 


wept, 

wet or wetted, 


wept. 

wet or wetted. 


Win, 


won, 




won, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 151 

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PART. 

Wind, wound or winded, wound or winded. 

Withhold, withheld, withheld. 

Withstand, withstood, withstood. 

Wont, wont, wont or wonted. 

Work, worked or wrought, worked or wrought. 

Wreathe, wreathed, wreathed or wreathen. 

Wring, wrung, wrung. 

Write, wrote, written. 

EXERCISES. 

The pupil will criticise the following sentences, making 
corrections when necessary. 

Many of them will be found to be correct according to 
some authorities and incorrect according to others. 
Some of them are correct or incorrect according to the 
idea intended to be conveyed and are simply placed here 
for the purpose of calling attention to them. 

1. They had better go home. 

2. Please give me a drink. 

3. I have a nice compliment for you. 

4. Read the four first stanzas of the poem. 

5. I never thought of him going to town. 

6. This will do equally as well. 

7. Can I leave my seat for a few minutes? 

8. Her and I can carry it easy enough. 

9. I heard it from our mutual friend. 

10. Read slower if you please. 

11. He was presented a book. 

12. Two many orators are in the audience for only to 
too speak. 

13. I dare say she is as old, if not older than you. 

14. Actions speak plainer than words. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



15. The house was divided on the question. 

16. Bread and butter is good. 

17. He acted rather strange this morning. 

18. Laura was given a bouquet. 

19. The hawk caught the pigeon while it was flyings 

20. The boy has a new pair of boots. 

21. He talks like you do. 

22. Shall you speak to him or I? 

23. He poured oil on and burned the house. 

24. Lettie, please shut the door. 

25. It was much easier done than we expected. 

26. The prisoner was sorry he ran away five minutes 
after he escaped. 

27. The little girl ran over the bed with flowers on. 

28. Don't say nothing about it. 

29. It is pleasanter to-day than it was yesterday. 

30. Pleasure and not books occupy his mind. 

31. Blanche was very beautiful which caused her to 
have many admirers. 

32. Them that study grammar, talk no better than me. 

33. I do not know but what he is right. 

34. My head feels badly. 

35. The soil is adapted for hemp and tobacco. - 

36. What is the matter of him. 

37. I differ from you in the opinion you just expressed* 

38. He fought in the Revolution. 

39. They are hard to work. 

40. You can confide on him. 

41. That class of pupils are diligent. 

42. They that honor me, I will honor. 

43. Either you or I are greatly mistaken in our 
judgment. 

44. The field yielded about twenty bushel to the acre. 

45. Tell me whom it was. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 153 

46. Go and lay down. 

47. I came in the room and set down. 

48. His constitution, as well as his fortune, require 
care. 

49. The public are invited to attend. 

50. Columbus knew that the earth was round. 

51. He said to me, who is you? 

52. Try to get well as quick as you can. 

53. The fleet were soon out of sight. 

54. They look quite as well as us. 

55. One or both of the girls has gone to the party. 

56. Let you and I endeavor to restrain him. 

57. It couldn't have been them that we passed. 

58. She is as good, if not better than he. 

59. He gave me too much. 

60.. I don't think he has come yet. 

61. It was believed to be her. 

62. I remember it being done. 

63. The number of senators are limited to two. 

64. I shall proceed no further. 

65. They have gotten back. 
6<6. He has forgot his hat. 

67. He dove after the lost pulley. 

68. The lamp has been lit. 

69. They have rang the bell. 

70. She sung a song. 

71. The ship sank. 

72. The melons have shrunken until they are quite 
small. 

73. They stayed their brother. 

74. They swang an hour. 

75. He swum across the creek. 

76. They have drank the water. 

77. They throwed him overboard. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



78. He thrusted his hand in the bag. 

79. The boiler bursted yesterday. 

80. She smelt the rose. 

81. From memory he spinned the thread of fancy. 

82. Wanted, a room for a single gentleman, twelve 
feet long and six feet wide. 

83. A child was run over by a heavy wagon, four 
years old, wearing a short pink dress, and bronze boots, 
whose parents are not yet found. 

84. I would like the congregation to be seated, as I 
wish to say a few words, before I begin. 

85. I cannot think of leaving you without distress. 

86. Mr. French needs a surgeon, who has broken his 
arm. 

87. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see; nor 
boots, that cannot walk. 

88. Found, a white-handled knife, by a child, that has 
a broken back. 

89. A man walked down the street, followed by a little 
dog, sporting a green neck-tie and patent leather boots. 

90. The man who sat writing with a Roman nose was 
ordered to leave the room. 

91. An extensive view is presented from the fourth 
story of the Delaware River. 

92. Wanted a groom to take charge of two horses of 
a serious turn of mind. 



NOTES ON ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

1. John is a friend of mine. The word mine in this 
sentence may be disposed of as a possessive pronoun 
modifying friends understood. 

2. Adverbs sometimes modify prepositional phrases as 
will be seen from the following sentence : We walked 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 155 

nearly across the bridge. Here it is evident that nearly 
modifies the prepositional phrase across the bridge. 

3. Before Abraham was lam. Mr. Webster says, that 
in the above sentence before is a preposition; if such be 
the case, the clause, Abraham was is certainly the object. 

We think, however, that it would be better to dispose 
of before as a conjunctive adverb, modifying was and 
connecting the subordinate clause Abraham was to am. 

4. He came running. In this sentence running is an 
adjective used as an attribute. It may also be disposed 
of as an adverb. 

5. As is frequently used as a preposition, as, He went 
as an ambassador. That is, He went, in the capacity 
of an ambassador. 

6. He died ten years ago. Ago in this sentence is an 
adjective, modifying the noun years. It may also be 
disposed of as an adverb modifying died. 

7. He came just as I left. In this sentence just is an 
adverb modifying the conjunctive adverb as. 

8. There is no fireside howsoever defended but has 
one vacant chair. Mr. Swinton says, that but in the 
above sentence is a conjunctive, or relative, pronoun. 

9. Worth is usually considered an adjective* in such 
sentences as, The hat is worth five dollars. But many 
grammarians class it as a preposition. Mr. Worcester 
says, that worth has the construction of a preposition, as 
it admits of the objective case after it, without an 
intervening preposition. 

10. But that. What rests, but that the mortal sen- 
tence pass. But in this sentence is given by Mr. Goold 
Brown as a preposition, having the clause " that the 
mortal sentence pass " for its object. 

But that may also be disposed of as a subordinate 
conjunction. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



11. He must needs go. In this sentence needs is an 
adverb. The expression is equivalent to, He must of 
necessity 20. 

12. That book is hers. In the above sentence hers is 
a pronoun limiting the noun book understood. The 
possessives in such sentences as, that knife is his; that 
house is theirs, etc., may be disposed of in a similar 
manner. 

13. Many a, such a, etc., are commonly regarded as 
adjective phrases ; as, He received many a warning, but 
he disregarded them all. 

14. Who, in such sentences as, / know who took the 
book, is certainly not a conjunctive pronoun as many 
grammarians have supposed, but the clause " who took 
the book " is evidently the object of the verb know. 
Mr. Holbrook says, in discussing this question in the 
sentence, " I learned many years ago who was the first 
President," I did not intend to say that I learned George 
Washington, who was, etc., but I learned (how to 
answer the question) who was the first president. We 
think that in such sentences as the above who is simply 
a pure pronoun without any of the connective qualities 
possessed by the conjunctive pronoun. 

In the following sentence, " I heard who did it," the 
meaning certainly is not, "I heard the person who did 
it," but that the clause " who did it," is the plain object 
of the verb heard. 

15. In such expressions as, freezing cold, scalding hot, 
dripping wet, etc., the words freezing, scalding, dripping y 
are adverbs modifying the adjectives follovving them. 

16. They love each other. Some adjectives when used, 
as nouns, are frequently in apposition with a plural noun 
as the above sentence illustrates ; the word each being in 
apposition with they. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 157 

Some grammarians contend that an ellipsis should be 
supplied thus ; They love : each loves the other. 

The same disposition may be made of such sentences 
as, They loved one another. 

17. Like, near and nigh. A preposition is usually 
supplied after the above words in such sentences as, He 
looks like (unto) you,- He sat near (to) the wall; but 
there is no necessity for doing so as the better disposition 
of the words like, nigh, etc., is to regard them as prep- 
ositions having the nouns and pronouns following as their 
objects. 

18. Such expressions as, He is gone, The race is run, 
All are departed, He is come, etc., though criticised by 
some, are, nevertheless, good English. 

There seems to be a shade of difference in the meaning 
expressed by He is gone, and he has gone. 

Words Variously Used. 

1. A. (1) Adj., "A horse;" " An ounce." (2) 
Prep., " He went a hunting." 

2. About. (1) Adv., "They run about" (2) 
Prep., " He spoke about John." 

3. Above. (1) Adv., "They stand above" (2) 
Prep., "They stand above the throng." (3) Noun, 
" They hail from above." 

4. Adieu. (1) Noun, " He said adieu." (2) In- 
terjection, " Adieu! my friend." 

5. After. (1) Adv., " He died soon after." (2) 
Prep., " We sent him after James." (3) Conj. Adv., 
" He studied after you left." 

6. Again. (1) Adv., " Say that again." 

7. Alike. (1) Adj., "Those horses are alike." 
(2) Adv., " He is alike unlearned and unloved." 

8. All. (1) Noun, "Take my all; it is yours." 



158 * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(2) Adj., "All things are ready." (3) Adv., " It is 
all gone." 

9. Any. (1) Adj., " Have you any money ? " (2) 
Adv., " They are not any wiser than we." 

10. As. (1) Adv., "He is as good as she." (2) 
Conj. Adv., " Go as they go." (3) Sub. Conj., " As 
we sow, so shall we reap." (4) Conj. Pro., " Such as 
I have I give unto thee." (5) Prep., " He went as au 
ambassador." 

11. Before. (1) Adv., "They came before:' (2) 
Prep., " A long road lies before us." (3) Conj. Adv., 
" He came before you left." 

12. Below. (1) Noun, "We walked from below" 
(2) Adj., " He is one of the hands below" (3) Adv., 
" They went below" (4) Prep., " The water is below 
the rock." 

13. Best. (1) Noun, "Let us do our best" (2) 
Adj., " These are the best peaches." (3) Adv. 5 " We 
can best agree at present." 

14. Better. (1) Noun, "Respect your betters." 
(2) Verb., "Time betters time." (3) Adj., " The old 
man is the better lawyer." (4) Adv., " He is loved 
better now." 

15. Both. (1) Adj., " Listen to both stories." (2) 
Co-ordinate Conj., " She is both fair and frail." 

16. But. (1) Adv., " If the boat sinks, we shall but 
drown." (2) Prep., "All but him had fled." (3) 
Part of Comp. Prep., " He would starve but for his 
family." (4) Co-ordinate Conj., " James went, but 
John stayed. 

17. By. (1) Adv., " They drove by in the surrey." 
(2) Prep., " The book came by mail." 

18. Close. (1) Adj., " They are close, stingy men." 
(2) Adv., "They followed close upon us." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 159' 

19. Else. (1) Adj., "Offend no one else." (2) 
Adv., " How else could that be clone?" (3) Co-ordi- 
nate Conj., " You do not like me, else would I go." 

20. Enough. (1) Noun, " We gave him enough." 
(2) Adj., " I have money enough." (3) Adv., "I 
have known you long enough ." 

21. Except. (1) Prep., "He studies nothing except 
grammar." (2) Sub. Conj., "Except ye repent ye 
shall all likewise perish." 

22. Far. (1) Noun, " They came from afar." (2) 
Adj., " He came from a far country." (3) Adv., 
" He is far away." 

23. Farewell. (1) Noun, " He said a last farewell" 

(2) Adj., "A fareiuell entertainment was given her." 

(3) Inter j., " Farewell." 

24. Fast. Noun, "The annual fast was observed." 
(2) Verb, " They did fast four days." (3) Adj., " He 
is a fast horse." (4) Adv., " He talks fast." 

25. Few. (i) Noun, "A few were there." (2) 
Adj., " I have a few letters to write." 

26. For. (1) Prep., " They looked for him." (2) 
Sub. Conj., " I am going home; for it is raining." 

27. Full. (1) Noun, "We will return at full of 
tide." (2) Verb, "The moon fulls to-night." (3) 
Adj., "The pail is full ." (4) Adv., "They laughed 
full well." 

28. Hard. (1) Adj., "This is a hard task." (2) 
Adv., " The house stood hard by." 

29. However. (1) Adv., " Death spares none, how- 
ever powerful." (2) Introductory Conj,, "However,. 
you need not go." 

30. 111. (1) Noun, "The ills of life are many." 
(2) Adj., "They are ill." (3) Adv., "Ill fares the 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

31. Indeed." (1) Adv., "He is indeed lame." (2) 
Introductory Conj., " Indeed you shall not go." 

32. Late. (1) Adj., " A late train caused the delay." 
(2) Adv., " He came late." 

33. Like. (1) Noun, "Like begets Wee." (2) 
Verb, " I like you." (3) Adj., " They had like oppor- 
tunities." (4) Prep., " He talked like a maniac." 

34. Low. (1) Adj., "This bough is low." (2) 
Adv., " He sang low." 

35. More. (1) Noun, " They had no more." (2) 
Adj., "More men are coming." (3) Adv., "He is 
more truthful." 

-"•-. 36. Much. (1) Noun, " We made much of him." 
(2) Adj., "He is credited with much wisdom." (3) 
Adv., " Read much, think more." 

37. Nay. (1) Noun, "The nays have it." (2) 
Adv., " Nay, we believe it not." 

38. No. (1) Noun, "The noes have it." (2) 
Adj., "He has no home." (3) Adv., "I can go no 
farther." 

39. Notwithstanding. (1) Prep., "We went not- 
withstanding the weather." (2) Sub. Conj., "He is 
rude notwithstanding he is educated." 

40. Now. (1) Noun, Eternity is a never ending 
now." (2) Adv., " Let us go now." 

41. Once. (1) Noun, " Once is enough." (2) 
Adv., " He went with us once." 

42. Only. (1) Adj., "This is the only book." 
(2) Adv., "I read only, I do not play." 

43. Over. (1) Adv., "The play is over." (2) 
Prep., " We drove over the grass." 

44. Right. (1) Noun, Right makes might." (2) 
Adj., " He \sright." (3) Adv., " You should be right 
sorry for that." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 161 

• 45. Save. ( 1) Verb, Save your money." (2) Prep., 
"They all went, .save one." 

;. 46, So. (1) Adv., " He is so good." (2) Sub. 
Couj., " As we sow so shall we reap." 

47. That (1) Adj., " That man is mean.'' (2) 
Conj. Pron., "Ye that hear my words, heed them." 
(.?■), .^Expletive, " He heard that they had gone." (4) 
Sub. Conj., " He gazed so long that both his eyes were 
dazzled.';' (5) Adv., "Now that (when) all women of 
condition are well educated we hear no more of these 
apprehensions." 

:i 48, The. (1) Adj., " The moon is shining." (2) 
Adv., " The harder we study the more we learn." 

49. Then. (1) Noun, "Many changes may take 
place between now and then.'" (2) Adv., " He then 
went to the house." (3) Sub. Conj., " If you can not 
use \i v then do not take it." 

50. There. ( 1) Adv., " He boards there:' (2) Ex- 
pletive, "There was a man named John." 

51. Till. (1) Noun, "The till contains money." 
(2) Verb, i' They till the ground." (3) Prep., "He 
stayed till Tuesday." (4) Cooj. Adv., " Do not go till 
he returns." 

52. Up. (1) Noun, " Our ups and downs affect only 
us." (2) Adv., "They are going up." (3) Prep., 
" He ran up the hill." 

53. Well. (1) Noun," The we/Hs an old one." (2) 
Verb, " Sweet sounds well up from below." (3) Adj., 
"All is well." (4) Adv., "The task was well done." 
(5) Introductory Adv., " Well, where are you going." 

54. What. (1) Pron., " Say what you think." (2) 
Adj<»." JJ7*a£ house is that." (3) Adv., " What by 
industry and what by economy he amassed a fortune." 
(4) Interj., " What! are you going to leave us? " 

n 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

55. When. ( 1) Adv., " When did he come." 
(2) Conj. Adv., " Write when you reach home." 

56. Which. (1) Conj. Pron., "This is the book in 
which it is found." (2) Adj., "Which horse did he 
buy?" 

57. While. (1) Noun, "Is it worth while?" (2) 
Verb, "He whiles away bis time." (3) Conj. Adv., 
" They stood uncovered while he prayed." 

58. Worse. (1) Noun, " We take this for better or 
for worse." (3) Adv., " He acted worse." 

59. Worth. (1) Noun, "Worth makes the man." 
(2) Verb, "Woe worth the day." Adj., "She is 
worth ten thousand." 

60. Yet. (1) Adv., "The house ye£ stands." Co- 
ordinate Conj., " He is a smuggler, yet will I trust 
him." 

61. Yonder. (1) Adj., "Yonder hill is just in 
sight." (2) Adv., " Who stands yonder? " 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. Whom the shoe fits let him put it on. 

2. The heights by great men reached and kept 

Were not attained by sudden flight, 
But they while their companions slept 
Were toiling upward in the night. 

3. He fell full length on the floor. 

4. 1 take my soup hot. 

5. Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee 

At all his jokes, for many a joke had he, 
Full well the busy whisper, circling round, 

Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned.. 

6. There is beauty in that letter 

Which my sister wrote to me. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 63 



No hand can trace one better — 
More easy, plain, and free. 

7. A mariner whom fate compelled 

To make his home ashore, 
Lived in yon cottage on the mount, 
With ivy mantled o'er. 

8. Vast commerce, with her busy hum of men. 

Owes to the sword less homage than the pen. 

9. Count that day lost, whose low descending sun 

Views at thy hand, no worthy action done. 

10. Lovers are blind and cannot see the petty follies 
that themselves commit. 

11. Immodest words admit of no defense; 

For lack of decency is lack of sense. 

12. The piper loud and louder blew, 

The dancers quick and quicker flew. 

13. Beneath this stone my wife doth lie ; 

She's now at rest and so am I. 

14. In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies, 

All quit their spheres and rush into the skies. 

15. Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 

Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. 

16. Ring out a slowly dying cause, 

And ancient forms of party strife, 
Ring in the nobler modes of life. 

17. The Indians had no written language but they had 
ways of giving information to one another by signs on 
rocks and trees, they had no money, but for coins used 
wampum beads. 

18. John declared it seemed to be impossible for him 
to tell what words are double relatives and what are 
interrogative pronominal adjectives. 

19. Misses, the tale that I relate 

This lesson seems to carry. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Choose not alone a proper mate, 
But a proper time to marry. 
20. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore. 

There is society where none intrudes 
By the deep sea and music in its roar. 



WORDS DISCRIMINATED. 

Below we have given a short list of common words 
and discriminated the uses thereof. This list should be 
studied carefully, as nothing is more calculated to inspire 
confidence in one's ability than a nice choice of words. 
The pupil should be required to compose original sen- 
tences illustrating the proper use of each of these words. 

Admittance, Admission. 

It would probably be quite difficult to draw a definite 
line between the uses of these words, though admittance 
is now chiefly confined to its primary sense of access 
into some locality or building. Thus we write on the 
doors of shops, etc., " No admittance." We speak of 
admittance to public places of entertainment, and of ad- 
mission of irregularities, rights, etc. When we speak of 
admission to a public entertainment the meaning is not 
quite that of admittance within the walls of the building, 
but rather a reception into the audience, or access to the 
performance or entertainment, as the case may be. 

Assurance never failed to get admittance into the house 
of the great. — Moore. 

The gospel has then only a free admission into the 
assent of the understanding. — South. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165 



Effect, Affect. 

Effect is that which is produced by a cause. What- 
ever is effected is always the consequence of a specific 
design. It requires a rational agent to effect. 

Affect, according to its literal sense, means to do or 
act; it signifies to act upon, to produce a change upon. 
A thing affects when it produces any change in our out- 
ward circumstances. Whatever affects must concern, 
but what concerns does not always affect; for example, 
the price of corn affects the interest of the seller, there- 
fore, it concerns him to keep it up without regard to 
the public good. 

The united powers of hell were bound together for the 
destruction of mankind, which was effected in part. — 
Addison. 

The effect is an unfailing index to the amount of the 
cause. — Whewell. 

Patchwork introduced for oratorical effect. — J. C. 
Shairp. 

The effect was heightened by the wild and lonely nature 
of the place. — Irving. 

To effect that which the divine counsel did decree. — 
Bp. Hurd. 

They sailed away without effecting their purpose. 

The change was effected by vinegar. — Boyle. 

What he decreed, he effected. — Milton. 

But this proud man affects imperial sway. — Dryden. 

The drops of every fluid affect a round figure. — 
Newton. 

The climate affected their health and spirits. — Macaulay. 

Thou dost affect my manners. — Shakespeare. 

Each of them is affected with the beauties of its own 
kind. — Addison. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Respectfully, Respectively. 

Respectfully means in a respectful manner, civilly, 
courteously. It is often employed as a complimentary 
closing to letters, notes, invitations, etc. 

Respectively means relating to a particular person or 
thing; belonging to each; particularly. I am yours 
respectfully , I respectfully beg to submit this proposition 
to you. 

The impressions from the objects of the senses do 
mingle respectively every one with his kind. — Bacon. 

There were four boys, respectively; John, James, 
Henry, and George. 

Salary, Wages. 

Salary is money paid to a person at regularly fixed 
intervals for services. 

Wages may be also paid at regularly fixed intervals, 
though when recompense for service is paid at short 
intervals, as by the day, it is usually called wages. 
Salary is also supposed by some to be recompense for 
services of a higher order; though this last destinction, 
if it exists, is not always observed. 

That they may have their wages duly paid them and 
something over to remember me. — Shakespeare. 

The manager drew his salary at the end of every 
month. 

Answer, Reply, Rejoinder. 

We answer a question. We reply to an assertion^ 
We make a rejoinder to a reply. We answer either for 
the purpose of denying some statement, of giving some 
information, or contradicting some statement. 

We reply or rejoin to explain or confute. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 167 

A reply is a response to a formal answer or attack 
either written or spoken. 

A rejoinder is a second reply, or a reply to a reply in 
speech or controversy. 

She answers him, as if she knew his mind. — Shakes- 
peare. 

Do the strings answer to thy noble hand. It answers 
the purpose. Old man, who art thou that repliest 
-against God. — Bible. 

The temptor stood nor had but to reply. — Milton. 

The lawyer now proceeded to make his rejoinder. 

Associate, Companion. 

Associates are those who are habitually in our com- 
pany: companions are those who are only occasionally 
in our company. Our habits are largely formed from 
our associates: Our companions do much to add to our 
happiness. Many persons may be suitable companions 
who would not be fit associates. 

He succeeded in associating his name inseparably with 
some names which will last as long as our language. — 
Macaulay. 

We see many struggling singly about the world, 
unhappy for want of an associate. — Johnson. 

Here are thy sons again ; and I must lose two of the 
sweetest companions in the world. — Shakespeare. 

A companion is one with whom we share our bread. — 
Trench. 

Business, Occupation. 

Business signifies that which makes busy : occupation 
signifies that which takes possession of a person or thing 
to the exclusion of other things. Business is some- 
thing more urgent and important than occupation. A 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



rich man has no occasion to pursue a business, but if /he 
is an industrious man he will not be contented without 
an occupation. A person who is busy has a great . deal 
to attend to. Those who are determined by choice to> 
any kind of business are indeed more happy than those 
who are determined by necessity. — Addison. 

How little must the ordinary occupations of man seem 
to one who is engaged in so noble a pursuit as the assim- 
ulation of himself to the Deity. — Berkley. . ;; 



Carriage, Gait, Walk. 

Carriage as here used signifies the act of carrying the 
body : gait signifies the manner of going : vmlk signifies 
the manner of walking. 

Carriage has reference to the manner in which the 
body is carried whether in a state of motion or rest* 
while gait has reference to the manner of carrying the 
limbs and body whenever we move, and walk has ref- 
erence to the manner of carrying the body when we move 
forward to walk. 

A person's carriage is in some degree natural to him* 
but may be greatly changed by education. We may 
contract a certain gait by habit. Walk is less definite- 
than either carriage or gait. 

His gallant carriage all the rest did grace. — Stirling. 

I do know him by his gait. — Shakespeare. 

In length of train descends her sweeping gown, and by 
her graceful walk, the queen of love is known. 

Principal, Principle. 

Principal signifies the highest in rank, character, or 
importance ; that which is considered the most important,/ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16# 



as the principal officers of the city, the principal prod- 
ucts of a country, the principal men of the town. 

Principle signifies a settled rule of action, a funda- 
mental proof or action. 

The principal men of the town were utterly destitute 
of principle. 

We should try rather to be persons of firmly fixed 
principles than to curry favor with principal men. 

He was chosen principal of the school. 

Wisdom is the principal thing. 

The soul of man is an active principle. 

A good principle not rightly understood may prove as 
hurtful as a had. 

I do not like your principles. 

Close, Shut. 

Close signifies to put together; shut signifies to put 
together so close that no opening is left. 

The eyes are shut by closing the eyelids ; the mouth is 
shut by closing the lips. 

Many things are closed which cannot be shut and many 
things are shut which cannot be closed. 

Nothing can be closed except something that consists 
of more than one part. Nothing can be shut except 
something that has or is supposed to have a cavity. A 
box is shut but it cannot be closed. A cut on the hand 
is closed, but it cannot be shut. 

One frugal supper did our studies close. — Dryden. 

Shall we be shut to that which to the beast is open?— 
Milton. 

Continual, Continued. 

What is continual may have frequent pauses ; what is 
continued goes on without any pause until its termination* 



170 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rains are continual. Noises in the street are continual. 
In the frigid zone there is continued darkness for the 
space of five or six months. 

He that is of a merry heart hath a continual feast. — 
Prior. 

The eye is delighted by a continual succession of small 
landscapes. — Irving. 

Our life is one continued toil for fame. — Martyn. 

By too intense and continued application our feeble 
powers would soon be worn out. — Blair. 

Employ, Use. 

Employ does not express so much as use. We always 
■use when we employ, but we do not always employ when 
we use. We employ anything we take into our services 
for a time. We use what we entirely devote to our pur- 
pose. Whatever is employed by one person may be 
employed by another, or at different times employed by 
the same person, but anything that is used is frequently 
rendered unfit for a similar use afterwards. What we 
employ may belong to another person, but what we use 
is supposed to be our exclusive property. 

We speak of employing persons as well as things, but 
we speak of using things only, and not persons, except in 
a very degrading sense. 

This is a day in which the thoughts ought to be 
employed on serious subjects. — Addison. 

Thy vineyard must employ the sturdy steer to turn the 
glebe. — Dry den . 

We employ certain technical terms in reference to a 
given subject: We use words to express our general 
meaning. 

Some other means I have which may be used. — Milton. 

Use diligence in business. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 171 

Ye valleys low, where the mild whispers use 
Of shades, and wanton winds, and gushing brooks. 

— Milton. 

Freedom, Liberty. 

Freedom has reference to the simple unsuppressed 
exercise of our powers, while liberty has reference to 
previous restraint. 

A captive is set at liberty. 

The liberty of the press, is our great security for free- 
dom of thought. A freedom may be innocent. A 
liberty does more or less violence to decency. There 
are little freedoms which may be allowed between the 
youths of different sexes, which will heighten the pleas- 
ure of society. A modest woman will resent every 
liberty offered to her as an insult. 

" Made captive, yet deserving freedom more." — 
Milton. 

" Repeatedly provoked into striking those who had 
taken liberties with him." — Macaulay. 

Gross, Total. 
Gross implies the whole of anything: that from which 
nothing has been taken. The total includes everything 
which we wish to include. We may deduct from the 
gross that which does not immediately belong to it. The 
total is that which admits of no deduction. Gross also 
signifies things taken or considered in a large and com- 
prehensive way. Things are said to undergo a total 
change, meaning an entire change. 

Hollow, Empty. 
Hollow has reference to the body itself. While empty 
refers to foreign bodies. The absence of some of the 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

materials belonging to a body, constitutes hollowness. 
The absence of a foreign body constitutes emptiness. 
What is empty, must be holloiv, but what is hollow need 
not be empty. A hazel nut is hollow for the purpose of 
receiving the fruit. It is empty, when there is no fruit. 
If the interior of a tree should rot out, it may become 
hollow. If the hollow was not filled with some foretell 
substance, it would also be empty. 



Ingenuous, Ingenious. 

Ingenuous means frank, open, and refers to the noble- 
ness of character which is inborn. Ingenious has refer- 
ence to the genius or mental powers which are inborn 
with life. We love the ingenuous character, on account 
of his open and frank disposition, we admire the ingen- 
ious man, on account of the endowments of his mind. 
A man may confess his faults ingenuously, yet defend 
them ingeniously . 

" Being required to explain himself, he ingenuously* 
confessed." — Ludlow. 

" Thus men 2:0 wrong with an ingenious skill." 



News, Tidings. 

News denotes intelligence from any quarter. Tidings 
denotes expected intelligence from some particular, 
quarter. News is unexpected. Tidings are expected. 
In time of war everybody is anxious for news. Persons 
who have relatives in the army, are anxious to have tid- 
ings from them. We may have no interest in news, but 
we are always more or less interested in tidings. We 
may have a curiosity to hear news, we have an anxiety to 
receive tidings. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 173 

Novel, New. 

Whenever a thing is novel, it is always new. But it is 
not every new thing that is novel. 

What is novel is usually strange and unexpected; 
while what is new, is ordinarily, usual and expected. 

What we have never seen before, or what we have 
seldom seen, is a novel sight. What is seen for the first 
time is a new sight. " We are naturally delighted with 
novelty." — Johnson. 

" New tribes visit the spacious heavens." — Thomson. 

Ray, Beam. 

Ray may be used when reference is had to either a 
large or a small quantity of light. But beam is used 
only when we refer to a large quantity. 

We may speak of the rays of either the sun, moon, or 
stars, or any luminous body, but we speak of the beams 
of the sun or the moon. 

It is hard to shut a room so that a single ray of light 
will not penetrate its interior. 

The lake looks beautiful on a summer's night with the 
moon beams smiling on its waves. 

Repose, Recline. 
To repose signifies to put ourselves in a position which 
is easy ; while recline means to lean back. The man 
reposes on a sofa or in an easy chair ; he may recline in a 
very uncomfortable chair. 

Seem, Appear. 

, v Svem signifies to appear like, and is therefore a species 
of appear. Nothing seems except that which appears in 
some given form* though anything may appear. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Seem is said of that which is in the future, or that 
which is contingent or doubtful. 

Appear is asserted of that which is positive or past. 

To say that a thing appears to be true, means that the 
facts as stated go to prove its truthfulness. To say that 
anything seems to be true, means that it has the resem- 
blance of being so, and we infer that it is true. 

" A prince of Italy, it seems, entertained his mistress 
on a great lake." — Addison. 

" His first principal care being to appear unto his 
people as he would have them be." — Sidney. 

* Truth, Veracity. 

Truth refers to the thing. Veracity to the person. 

We speak of the truth of something that is told, and 
the veracity of the person who told it. 

" Whispering tongues can poison truth." — Coleridge. 

Some men are to be admired for their veracity. 



Reality, Truth. 

Reality refers to the existence of a thing, while truth 
refers to the report concerning it. 

The thing: about which a statement is made either is, 
or is not, a reality. The statement made about the thing 
is either true or false. 

Writer, Author. 
Writer has reference to the act of writing; author 
refers to the act of inventing. 

Every author may properly be termed a writer, but 
every writer is not an author. 

Compilers and contributors to periodicals are writers r 
but not authors. 

Poets and historians may be properly termed authors. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175" 



Custom, Habit. 

Custom has reference to things which are done by the 
majority, while habit refers to things done by individ- 
uals. 

We speak of the customs of a nation, and the habits of 
a man. 

Custom is the outgrowth of long established practice, 
and may become a law. There can be no custom without 
usage, but there may be usage without custom. 

Habits will often arise from customs. The custom of 
attending church may produce habits of piety. 

Clothe, Dress. 
To clothe is to cover the body. To dress is to cover it 
in some particular manner. Dressing is a mode of 
clothing. We clothe our bodies to protect them from the 
weather. We dress in conformity with some particular 
custom. 

Lucky, Fortunate. 

Persons are called lucky when they secure something 
that is wholly unexpected, or when reference is made to 
something that is purely hazard. 

We are spoken of as fortunate when we are continually 
successful in our undertakings. 

& fortunate man grows rich by successful investments. 

A lucky man grows rich by securing a prize in a lottery, 
or some unexpected legacy. 

Reason, Cause. 
Reasons refer to actions^ causes to things. Reasons 
are either true or false. Causes are either hidden or 
evident. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A hard wind was the cause of the fence blowing down. 

It is difficult to give the reason for every calculation 
in trigonometry. A fact is derived from & cause. A 
conclusion is derived from a reason. 

The hot sun was the cause of the butter melting, on 
top of the man's house; but to discover the reason why 
it was placed there, we must ask the man who owns the 
house. 

Thankful, Grateful. 

Thankfulness has reference to the expression of the 
feelings, while gratitude is the feeling itself. 

We express our thanks, but we look grateful. 

Gratitude is often too deep to be uttered ; thankful- 
ness is uttered. Thankfulness is temporary ; gratitude, 
lasting. 

Modest, Bashful. 

Modest refers to a retiring manner of behavior; bash- 
fulness signifies awkwardness of manner. 

The modest are those who have not too high au opinion 
of themselves. The bashful blush, and hang their heads 
when spoken to. It is agreeable to converse with the 
modest, but it is painful to converse with the bashful. 

The modest have confidence, but are not conceited. 
The bashful have no self-possession. 

EXERCISES IN PRECISION. 
The pupil should illustrate, by an original sentence, 
the precise use of each word in these exercises, he should 
^tlso, insert the proper word in each blank. The dic- 
tionary should be consulted freely. 

Abandon, Desert, Forsake. 
The brave man will not — — his post in the hour of 
danger. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 177 



I saw a 

I feel almost 



Sufficient, Enough. 

A greedy man never has to eat. 

It is for you to know that he is alive. 

Opportunity, Occasion. 

If I should have an to call on him, I will 

improve the and present the matter. 

I frequently have an to go to town. 

Conduct, Behavior. 

The of the firemen was worthy of praise. 

Tbe soldiers gallantly on the occasion. 

Custom, Habit. 

Paley has said that man is a bundle of . 

The of early rising is very conducive to health. 

In many places in Germany it is the to dine as 

early as twelve o'clock. 

Duty, Obligation. 
It is the of parents to attend to the moral train- 
ing of their children. 

I feel myself under many to my uncle. 

Haste, Hurry. 

He ran off in such a that I did not get to tell him 

good-bye. 

If you do not make you will not get through in 

time. 

Though I am in a great I will do it for you. 

12 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Manners, Address. 

A good is not to be acquired by any fixed rules. 

His table show good breeding. 

Remember, Recollect. 

I perfectly what occurred up to a certain point 

of time, but I cannot what took place afterwards. 

Those whose memories are retentive have but little 
difficulty in what they have once learned. 

Immediate, Instantly. 

Admiration is a short lived passion which decays 

upon growing familiar with its object. 

This good news arrived yesterday, and was spread 

all over town. 

Seeing his friend in imminent danger of his life, he 
went to his rescue. 

Hands me, Pretty. 

Mr. Jones, the traveler, was a tall man. 

The forget-me-not is one of the flowers I ever 

saw. 

Saxon ladies have generally ■ faces. 

Little, Small. 
I saw a pretty — — girl standing at the garden gate. 

The heads do not always belong to the most 

stupid persons. 

This piece of lead is too to weigh much. 

Business, Profession. 

Manufacturers and bankers carry on a . 

Clergymen, physicians, etc., follow a . 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 179 

Those who are determined by choice to aDy particular 

kind of are indeed more happy than those who are 

determined by necessity. 

Genteel, Polite. 

A lady of genius will have a air about her 

whole dress. 

He is certainly a and courteous gentleman. 

Mention, Notice. 

The great critic I have before , though a heathen, 

has taken of the sublime manner in which the law- 
giver of the Jews has described the creation. 

In the course of his conversation he the badness 

of the road, and called the attention of his companion 
to it. 

Help, Assist. 

It is said that the author was materially in his 

work by a friend. 

Had it not been for his uncle who him out of his 

difficulty he would have gone to prison. 

I hastened to his and soon turned the scale of 

victory. 

Exterior, External. 

We should never judge anything by its . 

A large part of the religion in all countries was found 
to consist of ceremonies. 

Great, Big. 

The sack will not be enough to hold all that we 

wish to put into it. 

The the difficulty, the harder we should strive to 

overcome it. 

This hat is not enough for him. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Strong, Robust. 

He had a constitution. 

Three men could scarcely hold him down. 

Those who are physically are sometimes weak in 

mind. 

The huntsmen are gay, and bold. 

Ability, Capacity. 
It is never necessary to explain a thing twice to a 

pupil of good -. 

Few persons exercise their to the utmost. 

The and prudence of the general is all that saved 

the army. 

Value, Worth. 

The — — of the book can hardly be estimated. 

How much is that book ? 

The of a man's estate has nothing to do with his 

moral . 

Invent, Discover. 

Some one said that printing was the most important 
of modern times. 



The Chinese had the attractive power of the load- 
stone from remotest antiquity. 

Native, Natural. 
In heaven we shall pass from the darkness of our 
ignorance into the broad light. 



Scripture ought to be understood according to the 
familiar way of construction. 

Lay, Lie. 

A fragrant shower of rain had the dust. 

He has been down about two hours. 

He intends to ■ in a supply of wood for the winter. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



181 



Trust, Credit. 

Though it seems plausible, we attach but little to 

the report. 

We can put no in a liar nor give no to his 

tales. 

Vacant, Empty. 

A hour wants filling up. 

An title has nothing in it. 

When you speak he listens with a — — eye. 



Pleasure, Happiness. 

Wealth though it assists our cannot procure 



us 



The fragrance of flowers ogives us 



Hear, Listen. 

If you to a conversation, you may many 

improving remarks. 

There is an old proverb : never any good of 

themselves. 

We attentively but nothing more. 



INDEX. 

Page 

Adjectives 15, 86 

Adverbs 16 

Appendix. . . . , 131 

Notes on Common Expressions 132 

Appositives 31 

Apposition , 60 

Conjunctions 20, 96 

Conjunctive Pronouns D . . . . 24, 63 

Conjunctive Adverbs 26 

Clauses 27 

Defective Verbs 72 

Expletives 28 

General Exercises , 37 

Infinitives £2, 103 

Interjections 21 

Irregular Verbs 143 

List of 144 

Miscellaneous Exercises 123 

Nouns '. .- 48 

Number 49 

Person 50 

Gender . . 51 

Case 52 

Nouns and Pronouns 6 

Participles 34, 106 

Notes on the Participle 106 

Parts of Speech , 21 

Prepositions 18, 99 

Pronouns 61 

Declension of 61 



184 INDEX. 



Page 

Tenses 73 

Verbs 7,71 

Composed of More than one Word 13 

Forms of 72 

Incomplete, Completed by Attributes 11 

Incomplete, Completed by Objects 10 

Sentences Containing Modifiers 8 

Verb Phrases 77 

Forms of 78 

Forms of Passive 79 

Words Discriminated 164 

Words Variously Used 157 















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31 



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** * 



S* 




A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

CONTAINING THE ANALYSIS OF 

MANY SENTENCES NOT GIVEN 

IN OTHER WORKS, ALSO A 

VALUABLE COLLECTION 
OP THE OPINIONS OP DIF- 
FERENT STANDARD AUTHORS 
REGARDING DIFFICULT SENTEN- 
CE^ WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS. 



SN@JpKT 



